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Notes/Portuguese/Da ditadura à democracia: o 25 de Abril, o MFA e a Europa
Notes · PortugueseUK · A-Levels

Da ditadura à democracia: o 25 de Abril, o MFA e a Europa

This topic carries the second sub-theme of Edexcel's fourth theme, Tema 4: Como a História moldou a Política — the sub-theme Da ditadura à democracia, across its three aspects of o 25 de Abril e a Revolução dos Cravos, o movimento das Forças Armadas, and Portugal na Comunidade Europeia. It also carries Tema 4's research subject, Os Descobrimentos: a viagem de Vasco da Gama à Índia, with its three aspects of the importance of securing a trade route to India, Lisbon as the commercial centre of sixteenth-century Europe, and the impact of that voyage on the Portuguese society of the time. Tema 4 is set in Portugal only. Both halves of this topic are handled with the same discipline the previous topic set out and for the same reason: 1974 is within living memory, and the Discoveries are the subject of an active, unresolved and sometimes bitter argument in Portugal about how the maritime expansion should be named and taught. Dated facts are stated flatly. Interpretations are attributed. Disagreements are presented as disagreements, including the disagreement about the word Descobrimentos itself, which is contested in Portuguese-language scholarship and not only outside it. No figure for a voyage, a cargo or an enslaved person is invented anywhere, and no quotation is fabricated.

5 sections·~43 min reading time·4 competencies·Level Standard 1 · Advanced 4

T·0666 / 12
Exam profile
AO1 · Understand and respond in writing to spoken Portuguese about political change, memory and commemorationAO2 · Understand and respond in writing to written Portuguese of historical, constitutional and polemical registerAO3 · Manipulate Portuguese accurately, using the vocabulary of the state, the constitution and historical argumentAO4 · Show knowledge and understanding of, and respond critically to, Portugal's transition to democracy and to how its past is remembered
Operators:descreveranalisarexplicaravaliarcontextualizaratribuirdiscutirjustificar

basic level

At first-year standard the expectation is accurate chronological description with a personal response: what happened on 25 April 1974, who acted, what followed, when Portugal joined the European Community, and what the student thinks — with correct vocabulary, secure past tenses and accurate agreement.

higher level

The full A-Level expects dated evidence used as argument, every interpretation attributed, the naming of contested events treated as a question in its own right, and — for the research subject — an account of the Discoveries that neither celebrates nor denounces but sets out what is documented, what is disputed and by whom, in Portuguese.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 5 sections▾
  1. Da ditadura à democracia: o 25 de Abril, o MFA e a Europa
    • 01O 25 de Abril e a Revolução dos Cravos●
    • 02O movimento das Forças Armadas e o que se seguiu●
    • 03Portugal na Comunidade Europeia◐
    • 04Tema de pesquisa: a viagem de Vasco da Gama e a rota para a Índia●
    • 05Os Descobrimentos: o impacto na sociedade da época e a disputa sobre o nome●
§ 01

O 25 de Abril e a Revolução dos Cravos#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Da ditadura à democracia: o 25 de Abril e a Revolução dos CravosLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Tema 4 in one line: 1926 to 1986

Tema 4: 1926 to 1986Timeline from 1920 to 1990, 1926: Golpe militar, 1933: Estado Novo, 1945: PIDE, 1961: Guerra colonial, 1968: Caetano, 1974: 25 de Abril, 1975: Descolonização, 1976: Constituição, 1986: Adesão à CEE192019901926Golpe militar1933Estado Novo1945PIDE1961Guerra colonial1968Caetano197425 de Abril1975Descolonização1976Constituição1986Adesão à CEE
Fig. 1The spine of the whole theme, both sub-themes together, with integer years only. The left half belongs to A ditadura de Salazar and the right half to Da ditadura à democracia; the hinge is 1974. Three of these are dates on which a legal order changed — 1933, 1976 and 1986 — while the others mark events. The 1974 to 1976 cluster is deliberately dense, because that density is the historical point: a political system was replaced, a colonial empire dissolved and a constitution written inside twenty-four months.

Key points

The events of 25 April 1974 are unusually well documented, down to the hour, which makes this the one place in Tema 4 where a candidate can be precise without risk. In the late evening of 24 April a first radio signal was broadcast — the song E Depois do Adeus, performed by Paulo de Carvalho — and shortly after midnight a second, Grândola, Vila Morena by José Afonso, on Rádio Renascença; the second confirmed that the operation was proceeding. Military units moved on Lisbon during the night. By the following day the government of Marcelo Caetano had surrendered, and power passed to a Junta de Salvação Nacional. The operation was largely, though not entirely, bloodless: people were shot outside the headquarters of the political police in Lisbon. Those are documented facts and can be written flatly, and the two songs in particular are worth knowing because they connect Tema 4 directly to Tema 2's music sub-theme.
The name Revolução dos Cravos comes from the carnations that were placed in soldiers' rifle barrels and buttonholes during the day, and the flower has become the event's emblem — 25 April is a public holiday in Portugal, o Dia da Liberdade, and the carnation appears in its commemoration every year. The detail is part of the popular account of the day and is recounted with a particular origin in the flowers of a Lisbon restaurant; a candidate should feel free to mention the carnations and should be careful about presenting any single origin story as established. What is not in doubt is that the emblem exists, that it names the event in Portuguese and in many other languages, and that the choice of a flower rather than a weapon as the revolution's symbol is itself a claim about the event that Portuguese public memory has made.
The event has more than one name, and this is the place where the naming point from the previous topic becomes concrete. O 25 de Abril is the neutral and by far the commonest designation in Portuguese, used as a bare date the way the French use le 14 juillet. A Revolução dos Cravos is the emblematic name. A Revolução de Abril emphasises what followed rather than the day itself. And in some usages, particularly among those who regretted the change, the day is called o golpe — a coup — which is technically defensible, since it was a military action against a government, and which carries an evaluation. A candidate should default to o 25 de Abril, may use a Revolução dos Cravos freely, and should not use o golpe as though it were neutral. Noticing that this choice exists is worth a sentence in any essay on the sub-theme.
One analytical point about the day is worth having ready because it is the natural bridge from the previous topic. The action was carried out by officers of the Portuguese armed forces, many of them career officers who had served in the colonial war, organised in a movement that had formed around professional grievances before it became political. That is a documented fact about who acted. It supports an argument — that the regime was ended by the consequences of its own colonial policy rather than by the opposition that had contested it for four decades — and it complicates any account of the day as a popular uprising, since the population came into the streets after the military action rather than before it. Both of those are readings, both are held, and a candidate who sets them out and then argues for one is doing precisely what the AO4 grid describes.
Worked example

Paper 3 Section A: a listening question on a narrative with an embedded evaluation

The recording, which you may replay: Muita gente julga que o povo saiu à rua e que os militares se lhe juntaram. Foi ao contrário: as unidades moveram-se durante a noite, e só de manhã, quando já era evidente o que estava a acontecer, é que as ruas se encheram. Isso não diminui o que aconteceu nesse dia — apenas o descreve com rigor. The question asks: Que ideia é que o orador quer corrigir? (2 marks)

  1. 01Use the first pass to find the correction, not the narrative

    The question asks what the speaker wants to correct, so the answer is in the first sentence and the second, not in the detail that follows. Muita gente julga que introduces a belief the speaker is about to contradict, and foi ao contrário announces the contradiction. A candidate listening for facts will collect the night movements and the morning crowds and miss what the question actually asked, which is what belief is being corrected.

  2. 02Read julgar as believe, not judge

    Muita gente julga que o povo saiu à rua. Julgar in this construction means to think or believe, not to judge — a false friend that reverses the sentence for an unwary listener. Sair à rua is the idiom for coming out into the street; à is a + a. The belief being reported is that the people came out first and the military joined them, and se lhe juntaram is juntar-se a alguém, to join someone, with the clitic lhe referring back to o povo.

  3. 03Catch foi ao contrário, which is the whole answer

    Foi ao contrário. Three words, and they carry the correction: it was the other way round. Ao contrário is a fixed adverbial from Appendix 2's own list of discourse markers. Everything after this sentence is evidence for it, not new information, so a two-mark answer needs this plus the direction of the correction — military first, then the streets.

  4. 04Notice the cleft and the imperfect in the evidence clause

    Só de manhã, quando já era evidente o que estava a acontecer, é que as ruas se encheram. The é que cleft again, obligatory here because só de manhã is fronted. Era evidente is imperfect for the state; estava a acontecer is the European progressive with estar a plus infinitive, which is worth noting for a listener because in Brazilian Portuguese the same idea is estava acontecendo and the two sound quite different. Encheram-se is perfeito for the completed filling of the streets.

  5. 05Do not miss the final sentence, which guards the speaker's position

    Isso não diminui o que aconteceu nesse dia — apenas o descreve com rigor. Diminuir here is to belittle or detract from. The speaker is pre-empting the accusation that correcting the sequence is a way of downplaying the event, and a two-mark answer does not need this, but including it in a clause costs nothing and shows the marker you followed the whole turn. Com rigor is accurately or precisely. Write the answer short and put the correction first.

Result: O orador quer corrigir a ideia de que o povo saiu primeiro à rua e que os militares se lhe juntaram depois. Afirma que sucedeu o contrário: as unidades militares moveram-se durante a noite e as ruas só se encheram de manhã, quando já era claro o que estava a acontecer. Acrescenta que essa correção não diminui o acontecimento, apenas o descreve com maior rigor.

Exam focus

  • The two signal songs are documented and connect Tema 4 to Tema 2's music sub-theme (AO4).
  • O 25 de Abril is the neutral name; a Revolução dos Cravos the emblematic one; o golpe carries an evaluation (AO4).
  • The action was military and the population followed it into the streets. That fact complicates any popular-uprising account.
  • The day was largely but not entirely bloodless. State that accurately rather than rounding it either way.

Typical mistakes

  • Describing 25 April as a popular uprising that the army joined. The sequence documented is the other way round.
  • Presenting one origin story for the carnations as established fact.
  • Using o golpe as a neutral synonym for o 25 de Abril.
  • Producing a casualty figure. The events are documented; a number recalled under pressure is a guess.

Active revision

Write 200 words in Portuguese narrating the events of 24 and 25 April 1974 in order, using the pretérito perfeito for the events and the imperfeito for the conditions around them, and naming the two songs and the two military bodies accurately. Then add one closing paragraph of 60 words identifying the three names the day has in Portuguese and saying what each implies. Check that no sentence contains a number other than a date or a time.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 02

O movimento das Forças Armadas e o que se seguiu#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Da ditadura à democracia: o movimento das Forças ArmadasLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

O Movimento das Forças Armadas, universally abbreviated to MFA, was the organisation of officers that carried out the action of 25 April 1974. Its programme is usually summarised in Portuguese by three verbs beginning with the same letter, os três dd: democratizar, descolonizar, desenvolver — to democratise, to decolonise, to develop. That triad is worth memorising exactly, because it is both a compact statement of what the movement said it wanted and a ready-made structure for an essay, since the two years that followed can be assessed against each of the three in turn. A Junta de Salvação Nacional was the body that took power on the day; General António de Spínola became President and resigned in September of the same year, an early sign of how contested the direction of the transition would be.
The period between April 1974 and November 1975 has its own name in Portuguese, o PREC — o Processo Revolucionário em Curso — and it was neither calm nor unanimous. It included nationalisations of banks and major industries, occupations of large agricultural estates in the Alentejo and the agrarian reform that followed, several provisional governments in quick succession, and two confrontations that are conventionally treated as turning points, on 11 March and 25 November 1975. What the period was and how it should be judged is one of the most genuinely contested questions in modern Portuguese politics: some accounts describe a revolutionary process interrupted, others a democratic order defended against a takeover, and the disagreement runs along political lines that are still live. This is precisely material to present as a disagreement, with the documented events stated and the readings attributed.
Two dated outcomes anchor the transition and should be stated flatly. On 25 April 1975, exactly one year after the coup, elections were held to a Constituent Assembly — the first free elections in Portugal for half a century, with a famously high turnout. On 2 April 1976 the new Constitution was promulgated, followed by legislative elections in April and a presidential election in June, won by António Ramalho Eanes. Decolonisation ran in parallel and fast: Guiné-Bissau, Cabo Verde, Moçambique, São Tomé e Príncipe and Angola all became independent in 1974 and 1975, and Timor-Leste declared independence in 1975 before being invaded by Indonesia, regaining independence only in 2002. The arrival in Portugal of several hundred thousand people from the former colonies in 1975 and 1976 — os retornados, the specific historical sense of that word flagged in the migration topic — is a documented consequence and a direct bridge to Tema 3.
One point of care applies with special force here. Decolonisation as experienced in Portugal and decolonisation as experienced in Angola, Moçambique, Guiné-Bissau, Cabo Verde, São Tomé e Príncipe and Timor-Leste are not the same story, and several of those countries entered prolonged civil conflict after independence. A Tema 4 answer is scoped to Portugal and does not require an account of those events, but a candidate should write in a way that does not imply the story ended happily everywhere simply because it ended in Portugal. The honest formulation is to say what happened in Portugal, to note that the consequences elsewhere were substantial and are outside the scope of a Portugal-only answer, and not to summarise other countries' histories in a subordinate clause.
Worked example

Translation English into Portuguese: constitutional and political register (Paper 2 Section A)

Render this into Portuguese. The movement that had overthrown the government set out three aims, and the two years that followed were spent arguing about which of them came first. Elections were held a year to the day after the coup, and turnout was extremely high. The constitution that was promulgated the following spring was the product of that argument rather than a break with it.

  1. 01The movement that had overthrown — a pluperfect inside a relative clause

    O movimento que derrubara o governo fixou três objetivos. Derrubara is the synthetic pluperfect of derrubar, exactly right in this register and worth producing deliberately; tinha derrubado is equally correct and plainer. Derrubar is the standard verb for overthrowing a government. Fixar objetivos is to set aims; definir also works. Objetivos is post-Acordo; older texts print objectivos, and either would be understood but you should stay within one system.

  2. 02Two years spent arguing about which came first

    E os dois anos seguintes foram passados a discutir qual deles vinha em primeiro lugar. Ser passado a plus infinitive is the Portuguese for being spent doing something. Qual deles is which of them, with the partitive de. Vinha is imperfect, because the question was open across the period rather than settled at a moment. A more idiomatic alternative is passaram-se a discutir, and either is defensible; the point is not to translate spent with gastar, which is about money and effort rather than time in this sense.

  3. 03A year to the day after the coup — an idiom with a trap

    As eleições realizaram-se um ano depois, dia por dia. Realizar-se is the standard reflexive for an event taking place; ter lugar also works. Dia por dia is not the Portuguese for to the day; the natural rendering is um ano depois, dia por dia, or more safely um ano exatamente depois. This is a case where the safest route is the plain one: um ano depois, no mesmo dia. And note o golpe as a translation of the coup here is acceptable because the English source used that word — a translator renders the source's evaluation, and does not correct it.

  4. 04Turnout was extremely high — find the noun

    E a afluência às urnas foi extremamente elevada. A afluência às urnas is the standard Portuguese for turnout, literally the flow to the ballot boxes; a participação eleitoral is the more technical alternative. Às is a + as. Elevada rather than alta is the register a text about elections would use. A candidate who does not know afluência às urnas should write muita gente votou rather than invent a compound, because a plain accurate clause scores and an invented noun does not.

  5. 05The product of that argument rather than a break with it

    A Constituição promulgada na primavera seguinte foi o produto dessa discussão e não uma rutura com ela. Promulgada is the exact verb for a constitution being promulgated and is worth knowing. Na primavera seguinte — seasons take the article in Portuguese where English drops it. Rutura is the post-Acordo spelling; older texts print ruptura. Dessa is de + essa and com ela closes the sentence with the disjunctive pronoun after a preposition, which is where Appendix 2's strong pronouns are used. The não … e não construction mirrors the English rather than a break with it cleanly.

Result: O movimento que derrubara o governo fixou três objetivos, e os dois anos seguintes foram passados a discutir qual deles vinha em primeiro lugar. As eleições realizaram-se um ano depois do golpe, no mesmo dia, e a afluência às urnas foi extremamente elevada. A Constituição promulgada na primavera seguinte foi o produto dessa discussão e não uma rutura com ela.

Exam focus

  • Os três dd: democratizar, descolonizar, desenvolver. Memorise the triad; it is both a fact and an essay structure (AO4).
  • PREC, 11 March and 25 November 1975, the Constituent Assembly election of 25 April 1975, the Constitution of 2 April 1976 (AO4).
  • How the PREC should be judged is a live political disagreement in Portugal. Present it as one.
  • Decolonisation is a different story in each former colony. Do not compress them into a Portuguese subordinate clause.

Typical mistakes

  • Treating the two years after April 1974 as a smooth transition. They were contested, and the contestation is the subject.
  • Confusing the Junta de Salvação Nacional with the MFA, or either with the provisional governments.
  • Dating the Constitution to 1975. The Constituent Assembly was elected in April 1975; the Constitution was promulgated on 2 April 1976.
  • Implying that independence resolved matters in the former colonies. Several entered prolonged conflict, and it is outside a Tema 4 answer's scope.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Portuguese assessing the MFA's programme against its three verbs: democratizar, descolonizar, desenvolver. Devote roughly seventy words to each, state at least one dated fact under each, and attribute any judgement about whether the aim was achieved. Then check that the two 1975 confrontations and the 1976 Constitution are dated correctly, since a wrong date here is a factual error rather than a slip.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 03

Portugal na Comunidade Europeia#

●●○StandardLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Da ditadura à democracia: Portugal na Comunidade EuropeiaLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The third aspect is Portugal na Comunidade Europeia, and it belongs in a sub-theme about the transition from dictatorship for a reason that a candidate should make explicit rather than leave implicit: accession was part of the transition, not a separate chapter after it. The dates are documented. Portugal applied for membership of the European Communities in 1977, a year after the new Constitution; the accession treaty was signed in June 1985; and Portugal became a member on 1 January 1986, on the same day as Spain, which had made its own transition from dictatorship over the same years. The organisation was then the Comunidade Económica Europeia, a CEE, and became a União Europeia under the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. Using CEE for the period before 1993 and UE after it is a small accuracy that an examiner notices.
The argument for why accession mattered to the transition can be made from mechanisms rather than sentiment, and it is stronger that way. Membership required and rewarded a functioning democratic order, which raised the political cost of any return to authoritarian rule. It reoriented an economy that had spent decades organised around a colonial system and, latterly, EFTA, towards the European market that was already Portugal's largest trading partner. It brought structural funds directed at infrastructure, which produced visible physical change. And it changed the country's self-description: the phrase o regresso à Europa, the return to Europe, was widely used at the time and encodes a whole argument about where Portugal belonged, which a candidate can quote as a contemporary formulation while noting that it was a claim rather than a description.
The vocabulary is worth having exactly, because a Paper 1 text on this aspect will be written in it. A adesão is accession and aderir a to accede to; o alargamento is enlargement; um Estado-membro a member state; os fundos estruturais and os fundos de coesão; a moeda única for the single currency, which Portugal adopted, and o euro, which entered circulation in 2002; a Comissão Europeia, o Parlamento Europeu, o Conselho. For the argument: a soberania, a integração, a convergência, as assimetrias regionais. And for the sceptical side of the argument, which exists in Portugal as everywhere else: a perda de soberania, a dependência dos fundos, o impacto sobre a agricultura e as pescas. A candidate who can state the sceptical case in Portuguese is far better placed than one who can only state the enthusiastic one.
How accession should be assessed is genuinely disputed and should be presented as such. One reading emphasises democratic consolidation, infrastructure, access to a large market, and the anchoring of Portugal in a rules-based order. Another emphasises the decline of particular sectors under competition, the effects of common policies on Portuguese agriculture and fisheries, the constraints of monetary union as they were felt during the financial crisis after 2008, and the persistence of regional inequality despite decades of structural funding. Both readings have serious advocates in Portugal, both can be argued from mechanisms, and a candidate who presents one and then answers it before reaching a judgement is doing what the AO4 grid's top band describes. What is not defensible is treating either as self-evident.
Worked example

Paper 3 Section B 5(c): evaluating two views on European integration

The recording argues that accession consolidated Portuguese democracy and that the physical transformation of the country's infrastructure is visible to anyone. The text argues that the same funds entrenched a development model dependent on transfers, and that regional inequality between litoral and interior did not narrow. Question 5(c) asks you to evaluate both and say which you agree with, in 200 to 250 words.

  1. 01Locate the disagreement, which is not about the facts

    As duas fontes concordam sobre o essencial dos factos — houve fundos, houve obra feita — e divergem sobre o que isso significa a longo prazo. Opening on the agreement rather than the disagreement is unusual and effective, because it shows you have read both sources closely enough to see that they are not contradicting each other on evidence. Obra feita is a compact Portuguese phrase for construction actually carried out.

  2. 02Give the recording its strongest form

    A gravação apresenta um argumento difícil de contestar no plano político: a adesão elevou o custo de qualquer regresso ao autoritarismo, porque tornou a democracia uma condição de pertença. Difícil de contestar concedes strength. Elevou o custo is the mechanism, stated as a mechanism rather than as a sentiment. Uma condição de pertença — a condition of belonging — is the precise formulation and does real analytical work in five words.

  3. 03Give the text its strongest form and identify what it does not show

    O texto responde com um argumento económico igualmente sério: os fundos podem ter financiado infraestruturas sem alterar o modelo de desenvolvimento que os tornava necessários. A observação sobre as assimetrias entre litoral e interior é a parte mais forte, porque é verificável. Podem ter financiado is the perfect infinitive under a modal, the correct way in Portuguese to say may have. Naming which part of an argument is strongest, and why — because it is checkable — is evaluation rather than summary.

  4. 04Bring the two into contact with a criterion

    As duas posições não se excluem: uma fala de consolidação política, a outra de convergência económica, e é perfeitamente possível que a primeira se tenha verificado e a segunda não. A questão é qual delas a afirmação em causa está a medir. Excluir-se is to be mutually exclusive. Que … se tenha verificado is the perfect subjunctive under é possível que, one of Appendix 2's listed triggers. This move — showing that two apparently opposed sources are answering different questions — is among the most sophisticated available in 5(c) and costs two sentences.

  5. 05Judge, and say what would change your mind

    Concordo mais com a gravação quanto ao efeito político e com o texto quanto ao efeito regional. Se me obrigassem a escolher uma só posição, escolheria a da gravação, porque um regime democrático estável é a condição de qualquer correção posterior das assimetrias, e não o contrário. Se me obrigassem is the imperfect subjunctive in an unreal condition with escolheria in the conditional — the classic pairing, and a range structure the AO3 grid rewards. The reason given is an argument about ordering rather than about magnitude, which is the kind of reason available without data.

Result: As duas fontes concordam sobre o essencial dos factos — houve fundos, houve obra feita — e divergem sobre o que isso significa a longo prazo. A gravação apresenta um argumento difícil de contestar no plano político: a adesão elevou o custo de qualquer regresso ao autoritarismo, porque tornou a democracia uma condição de pertença. O texto responde com um argumento económico igualmente sério: os fundos podem ter financiado infraestruturas sem alterar o modelo de desenvolvimento que os tornava necessários. A observação sobre as assimetrias entre o litoral e o interior é a parte mais forte da sua posição, porque é verificável. As duas posições, porém, não se excluem: uma fala de consolidação política, a outra de convergência económica, e é perfeitamente possível que a primeira se tenha verificado e a segunda não. Concordo, portanto, mais com a gravação quanto ao efeito político e com o texto quanto ao efeito regional. Se me obrigassem a escolher uma só posição, escolheria a da gravação, porque um regime democrático estável é a condição de qualquer correção posterior das assimetrias, e não o contrário.

Exam focus

  • Applied 1977, treaty signed 1985, member from 1 January 1986, alongside Spain. CEE before 1993, UE after (AO3 and AO4).
  • Accession was part of the transition, not a sequel to it. Say so explicitly and give the mechanism.
  • O regresso à Europa is a contemporary formulation and a claim, not a neutral description. Quote it as such.
  • Be able to state the sceptical case in Portuguese, not only the enthusiastic one.

Typical mistakes

  • Calling it the União Europeia in 1986. It was the Comunidade Económica Europeia until Maastricht.
  • Dating accession to 1985, which is the signature of the treaty rather than the entry into force.
  • Treating the benefits of membership as self-evident and having nothing to say when a text raises the sceptical case.
  • Forgetting that Spain acceded on the same day and after a comparable transition. The parallel is useful and true.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Portuguese assessing Portuguese accession to the European Community, structured as: the dates and what they were; one mechanism by which membership supported the democratic transition; the strongest point on the sceptical side, stated fairly; and your judgement with a reason. Use CEE and UE correctly for their respective periods, and quote o regresso à Europa once, marked as a contemporary formulation rather than as your own.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 04

Tema de pesquisa: a viagem de Vasco da Gama e a rota para a Índia#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Tema de pesquisa: Os Descobrimentos: a viagem de Vasco da Gama à Índia — a importância de assegurar uma rota comercial para a Índia; Lisboa, centro de negócios da Europa no século XVILPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Paper 1 Section C — Writing (research question)

Key points

Tema 4's research subject is Os Descobrimentos: a viagem de Vasco da Gama à Índia, and its three aspects are the importance of securing a trade route to India, Lisbon as the commercial centre of sixteenth-century Europe, and the impact of that voyage on the Portuguese society of the time. One point of accuracy first: the specification prints the heading with importãncia, a tilde where Portuguese requires a circumflex, and prints Índia without its accent in places; write importância and Índia. The subject is Portugal-scoped like the rest of Tema 4, requires all three aspects, and must not draw on either of the works studied for Paper 2 — a constraint worth checking against your own choices, since one of the prescribed literary texts is Saramago's A viagem do elefante, which is set in the sixteenth century.
The documented outline of the voyage is precise and can be stated flatly. Bartolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Vasco da Gama left Lisbon in July 1497 with a small fleet, rounded the Cape, sailed up the East African coast — where Portuguese ships entered a long-established trading world of Swahili, Arab and Gujarati merchants and took on a pilot for the crossing — and reached Calicut, on the Malabar coast of India, in May 1498. He returned to Portugal in 1499. The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 had already divided claimed spheres between Portugal and Castile. Within a generation the Portuguese Crown had established a network of fortified trading posts including Goa, taken in 1510, Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515, administered as o Estado da Índia, and the annual route between Lisbon and India was known as a Carreira da Índia.
The first aspect asks why securing a trade route mattered, and the answer is specific and economic. The trade in question was principally in spices — pepper above all, along with cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg — which reached Europe through the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea or the Gulf, and the eastern Mediterranean, passing through the hands of successive intermediaries. A sea route around Africa promised to bypass those intermediaries and to give the Portuguese Crown direct access to the source. Two things should be said about this at once, because they are what separates an accurate account from a schoolbook one. The first is that the Portuguese did not discover a route to India in any sense that would have been recognisable to the people already sailing the Indian Ocean; they found a way there from the Atlantic and then attempted, by force and by fortification, to control a network that already existed and had done for centuries. The second is that the attempt was only partially successful, since the older routes continued to function.
The second aspect, Lisboa como centro de negócios da Europa no século XVI, is concrete and well documented. The Crown organised the trade through a Casa da Índia, the royal institution that administered the India traffic and its revenues, and Lisbon became the point of arrival for cargoes destined for northern Europe. Foreign merchant houses — German, Italian and Flemish among them — established or maintained agents in the city; the Rua Nova dos Mercadores was its commercial artery; and the city's population and built environment changed accordingly. Much of the physical Lisbon of that period was destroyed in the earthquake of 1755, which is itself worth knowing, since it means the sixteenth-century city is known largely through documents and images rather than through surviving fabric. A candidate researching this aspect can be genuinely specific — the institution, the street, the merchant communities, the commodity — and specificity here is worth more than any general statement about wealth and glory.
Worked example

Reading strategy on a concrete passage: sixteenth-century commerce in modern historical prose (Paper 1 Section B)

Work through this the way you would in Paper 1 Section B. Ao chegarem ao Índico, os navios portugueses não encontraram um vazio: encontraram uma rede de rotas comerciais que funcionava havia séculos e na qual mercadores árabes, guzerates e suaílis já se moviam com desembaraço. O que a Coroa portuguesa procurou não foi tanto abrir um caminho como controlar um que existia — e é essa diferença que a historiografia recente tem sublinhado.

  1. 01Open with the personal infinitive, because that is the first structure

    Ao chegarem ao Índico, os navios portugueses. Ao plus the inflected infinitive chegarem, with the -em ending carrying the plural subject os navios — the construction met in earlier topics, here doing the work of when they reached. O Índico is the Indian Ocean, and it takes the article; a reader who does not know the noun can recover it from context. Note that the subject follows the main clause's verb, which is normal Portuguese order after a fronted adverbial.

  2. 02Read the colon as the sentence's argumentative pivot

    Não encontraram um vazio: encontraram uma rede de rotas comerciais. The repetition of encontraram across the colon is deliberate rhetoric — the same verb, twice, with the second correcting the first. Um vazio is an emptiness or a void, and the whole passage exists to deny it. This is the sentence a comprehension question would be built on, and its meaning is entirely carried by the structure rather than by any single word.

  3. 03Catch havia séculos, which is not the verb haver in its usual sense

    Que funcionava havia séculos. Havia here is the past-tense counterpart of há in time expressions — Appendix 2 lists time constructions with há and desde há explicitly — and havia séculos means for centuries, up to that moment. Combined with the imperfect funcionava it says the network had been working for centuries and was still working then. A reader who takes havia as there were will produce nonsense; a reader who takes it as the time marker gets the whole clause.

  4. 04Untangle the relative with a preposition

    E na qual mercadores árabes, guzerates e suaílis já se moviam com desembaraço. Na qual is em + a qual, the heavier relative that Portuguese uses after a preposition where English can say which; que would not work here. Guzerates is Gujarati and suaílis Swahili — proper adjectives that must simply be known, and their presence in the sentence is the point being made. Com desembaraço is with ease or assurance. Mover-se is reflexive here.

  5. 05Read the não tanto … como comparison and the closing attribution

    O que a Coroa portuguesa procurou não foi tanto abrir um caminho como controlar um que existia. Não tanto X como Y is not so much X as Y, one of Appendix 2's comparative constructions, and it is the passage's thesis in one clause. Um que existia is one that existed, with um standing for caminho. The final clause, e é essa diferença que a historiografia recente tem sublinhado, is a cleft plus the pretérito perfeito composto — has been emphasising, iteratively, up to now — and it attributes the whole reading to recent historiography rather than asserting it. If a question asks a quem é atribuída esta leitura, the answer is in those last five words, and a candidate who has read the tense correctly will also know the emphasis is ongoing.

Result: On reaching the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese ships did not find an emptiness: they found a network of trade routes that had been working for centuries and in which Arab, Gujarati and Swahili merchants were already moving with assurance. What the Portuguese Crown sought was not so much to open a route as to control one that already existed — and it is that difference which recent historiography has been emphasising.

Exam focus

  • Write importância and Índia correctly; the specification's spellings are drafting slips (AO3).
  • 1488 Dias at the Cape; 1497 departure; 1498 Calicut; 1499 return; 1494 Tordesillas; 1510 Goa; 1511 Malacca; 1515 Hormuz (AO4).
  • The Portuguese entered an existing Indian Ocean trading world and tried to control it. That is the accurate framing.
  • Casa da Índia, Carreira da Índia, Rua Nova dos Mercadores, Estado da Índia — nameable specifics for aspects one and two.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing that Vasco da Gama discovered the route to India. He found a way there from the Atlantic; the Indian Ocean was long since navigated.
  • Producing figures for ships, crews, cargo values or profits. All are researched, disputed and not recallable safely.
  • Using Saramago's A viagem do elefante as research material while also studying it for Paper 2. The research must not touch the works.
  • Describing sixteenth-century Lisbon from surviving buildings. Most of that city was destroyed in 1755.

Active revision

Write 200 words in Portuguese on why a sea route to India mattered to the Portuguese Crown, using only the commodity, the intermediaries, the institution and the geography, and containing no numbers other than years. Then write one further sentence, in Portuguese, that describes what the Portuguese ships found when they reached the Indian Ocean, phrased so that it would be accurate to a reader in Calicut as well as to one in Lisbon.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 05

Os Descobrimentos: o impacto na sociedade da época e a disputa sobre o nome#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Tema de pesquisa: Os Descobrimentos — o impacto dessa viagem na sociedade portuguesa da épocaLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Paper 1 Section C — Writing (research question)

Os Descobrimentos: what is documented, what is disputed

Documented, and to be attributedTable with 3 columns and 4 rows, Data: Aspect · State flatly · Attribute; 1. The route · 1488 Dias; 1497–99 the voyage; 1494 Tordesillas; the spice trade and its intermediaries · How far the Crown controlled the route; how far older routes continued; 2. Lisbon · Casa da Índia; Carreira da Índia; Rua Nova dos Mercadores; foreign merchant houses · How durable or transformative the wealth was; 3. Society · Crown revenues; a cosmopolitan city; an enslaved population; Os Lusíadas, 1572 · The balance of benefit and cost; the long-term effect; The name · Alternatives circulate: expansão marítima, expansão ultramarina, conquista · Which name is right — a live dispute in Portuguese scholarshipASPECTSTATE FLATLYATTRIBUTE1. THE ROUTE1488 Dias; 1497–99 thevoyage; 1494 Tordesillas;the spice trade and itsintermediariesHow far the Crown controlledthe route; how far olderroutes continued2. LISBONCasa da Índia; Carreira daÍndia; Rua Nova dosMercadores; foreign merchanthousesHow durable ortransformative the wealthwas3. SOCIETYCrown revenues; acosmopolitan city; anenslaved population; OsLusíadas, 1572The balance of benefit andcost; the long-term effectTHE NAMEAlternatives circulate:expansão marítima, expansãoultramarina, conquistaWhich name is right — a livedispute in Portuguesescholarship
Fig. 2The research subject's three aspects sorted into three columns, because the sorting is the method the whole subject requires. The middle column is the material an answer states flatly; the right-hand column is the material that must carry an attribution. The bottom row is not one of the specification's aspects but belongs to all three of them: the name of the subject is itself contested, and in Portugal that argument has been conducted publicly and in Portuguese. Nothing in this table is quantified, because the quantities are the subject of continuing scholarly research and cannot be recalled safely in an examination room.

Key points

The third aspect asks about the impact of the voyage on the Portuguese society of the time, and da época again restricts the question to the sixteenth century rather than to the present. Several impacts are documentable. The Crown's revenues were transformed by a trade it administered directly, which altered the relationship between the monarchy and other sources of wealth and power. Lisbon grew and became cosmopolitan in a way it had not been, with resident foreign merchant communities and with people arriving from Africa and Asia, some free and many enslaved — the presence of an enslaved population in sixteenth-century Lisbon is documented and is part of what this aspect asks about. Maritime enterprise absorbed men, ships and capital on a scale that had consequences for agriculture and for other sectors. And the expansion produced a literature, of which Camões's Os Lusíadas of 1572 is the most cited example, along with a body of navigational, botanical and descriptive writing.
The aspect cannot be answered honestly without the Atlantic slave trade, and it should be included as a matter of accuracy rather than of editorial. Portuguese participation in the trade in enslaved Africans began in the fifteenth century, before the voyage this research subject is about, and continued and expanded across the period the subject covers; enslaved people were present in Portugal itself, including in Lisbon, and the trade became central to the Atlantic economy that Portugal was also building in Brazil. The Carreira da Índia and the Atlantic slave trade were different enterprises and should not be conflated, but they were parts of one maritime expansion by one Crown in one century, and an account of the impact on Portuguese society that omits the enslaved people who were in that society has left out part of the society. No figure should be invented for any of this — the numbers are the subject of large and continuing scholarly research — and none is needed to state the fact.
The word Descobrimentos is itself contested, and this is the point the specification does not make but a strong answer will. The objection, made in Portuguese by Portuguese-language historians and writers as well as by scholars elsewhere, is that discovery presupposes a point of view: the places reached were not undiscovered by the people living in them, and the word therefore builds a particular perspective into the name of the subject. Alternatives are in circulation — a expansão marítima, a expansão ultramarina, os encontros, and for particular episodes a conquista or a colonização, each carrying its own claim. The disagreement is not an academic nicety in Portugal: when a museum on this subject was proposed in Lisbon in 2018, a public letter signed by a large number of academics and writers objected, and the argument was conducted substantially about the word in the proposed name. A candidate who can describe that disagreement accurately, in Portuguese, has something to say that very few will.
How to handle all this in an examination is a question of stance, and the stance that earns marks is also the honest one. Do not celebrate: an answer written as national glory is making an evaluative claim that the AO4 grid does not reward and that a substantial part of Portuguese scholarship rejects. Do not denounce either: an answer written as a moral indictment is making the opposite evaluative claim, is equally unattributed, and equally fails to demonstrate knowledge of the period. What the grid rewards is knowledge and understanding of society and culture, supported by information and examples, with critical analysis and justified conclusions. That means: state what is documented; name the enslaved and the merchants and the institutions; describe the historiographical dispute as a dispute and say who is on each side; and then, if the question calls for it, give your own judgement, marked as yours and argued from the evidence you have set out. That is a harder answer to write than either of the easy ones, and it is worth considerably more.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section C: the research question on contested material, opened and planned

The Section C statement reads: A viagem de Vasco da Gama transformou a sociedade portuguesa do seu tempo. Você concorda? The unseen Portuguese text describes the growth of Lisbon and the arrival of foreign merchants, and quotes a historian arguing that the wealth was concentrated and did not change the country's productive base. Show how the first 160 words should be built and how the rest is planned.

  1. 01Take a position on the verb, which is where the question turns

    Concordo que a transformou, mas não no sentido que a palavra sugere: o que mudou foi a composição da riqueza e da cidade, não a estrutura produtiva do país. Splitting transformou into what changed and what did not is the move that turns a yes-or-no statement into an argument, and it does so with the statement's own vocabulary rather than by importing a new topic. Note the clitic a in transformou-a placed before the verb here as a transformou, because concordo que introduces a subordinate clause and a conjunction triggers proclisis.

  2. 02Establish the documented ground before arguing on it

    Está documentado que a Coroa passou a administrar diretamente um comércio de longa distância através da Casa da Índia, que Lisboa recebeu casas mercantis estrangeiras e que a sua população se tornou mais diversa, incluindo pessoas escravizadas trazidas de África. Naming the institution, the merchants and the enslaved population in one sentence does three things at once: it demonstrates research, it is accurate, and it forecloses the criticism that the answer is a sanitised account. Está documentado que is the frame that marks all of it as record rather than claim. Pessoas escravizadas is the formulation now standard in Portuguese-language scholarship.

  3. 03Use the text's historian as the hinge of the argument

    O texto cita um historiador que sustenta que essa riqueza foi concentrada e não alterou a base produtiva, e é essa a distinção de que a minha resposta depende. The AO2 grid's ten marks are earned by using the text, and here it is used structurally: the historian's claim becomes the criterion for the whole essay rather than an ornament. De que a minha resposta depende is a relative with a preposition, the heavier construction Portuguese requires — depender de, so de que.

  4. 04Announce the plan in a clause, so the argument visibly has one

    Considerarei três planos: o das receitas da Coroa, o da cidade de Lisboa e o da sociedade mais ampla — porque a afirmação pode ser verdadeira num deles e falsa noutro. Considerarei is the plain future, raising the register. O de … o de … o de is the elliptical repetition of the article, an elegant and very Portuguese economy. Naming three planes and saying why the distinction matters is the AO4 grid's sustained line of argument being set up explicitly.

  5. 05Signal the historiographical point without letting it take over

    Uma nota prévia sobre o vocabulário: o próprio termo Descobrimentos é hoje contestado por historiadores de língua portuguesa, que preferem expansão marítima, e uso-o aqui por ser o da pergunta. This is the sentence that shows an examiner you know the ground you are standing on. It is one sentence, it is attributed, it names an alternative, and it explains why you are nonetheless using the specification's term — which is both honest and practical. Uso-o with enclisis, since the clause is affirmative and main. Por ser is a plus infinitive causal, because it is.

Result: Concordo que a transformou, mas não no sentido que a palavra sugere: o que mudou foi a composição da riqueza e da cidade, e não a estrutura produtiva do país. Uma nota prévia sobre o vocabulário: o próprio termo Descobrimentos é hoje contestado por historiadores de língua portuguesa, que preferem expansão marítima, e uso-o aqui por ser o da pergunta. Está documentado que a Coroa passou a administrar diretamente um comércio de longa distância através da Casa da Índia, que Lisboa recebeu casas mercantis estrangeiras e que a sua população se tornou mais diversa, incluindo pessoas escravizadas trazidas de África. O texto cita um historiador que sustenta que essa riqueza foi concentrada e não alterou a base produtiva, e é essa a distinção de que a minha resposta depende. Considerarei três planos: o das receitas da Coroa, o da cidade de Lisboa e o da sociedade mais ampla — porque a afirmação pode ser verdadeira num deles e falsa noutro.

Exam focus

  • Da época restricts the aspect to the sixteenth century. Answer about that society, not about memory today (AO4).
  • The Atlantic slave trade is part of an honest account of impact on Portuguese society, including in Lisbon itself. No invented figures (AO4).
  • Descobrimentos is a contested word, contested in Portuguese by Portuguese-language scholars. Name the dispute and the alternatives.
  • Neither celebrate nor denounce. Document, attribute, then judge and mark the judgement as yours.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing the aspect as national achievement, which is an unattributed evaluative claim rejected by much scholarship.
  • Writing it as pure indictment, which is the same error in the other direction and demonstrates no knowledge of the period.
  • Omitting the enslaved population of sixteenth-century Portugal from an account of sixteenth-century Portuguese society.
  • Treating Descobrimentos as a neutral technical term without noticing that its neutrality is exactly what is disputed.

Active revision

Write 250 words in Portuguese on the impact of the maritime expansion on sixteenth-century Portuguese society, in four movements: the Crown and its revenues; Lisbon and who lived in it, including enslaved people; the effects on other sectors; and the literature. Then write a separate 80-word paragraph naming the dispute about the word Descobrimentos, giving at least two alternative terms and saying who objects to what. Neither paragraph may contain a number that is not a year, and neither may contain an unattributed evaluation.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

Contents

Section -- / 05

    • 01O 25 de Abril e a Revolução dos Cravos●
    • 02O movimento das Forças Armadas e o que se seguiu●
    • 03Portugal na Comunidade Europeia◐
    • 04Tema de pesquisa: a viagem de Vasco da Gama e a rota para a Índia●
    • 05Os Descobrimentos: o impacto na sociedade da época e a disputa sobre o nome●

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References & sources

Sources

Pearson Edexcel

  • Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification

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