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Notes/Portuguese/A ditadura de Salazar: a PIDE, a censura e o declínio do regime
Notes · PortugueseUK · A-Levels

A ditadura de Salazar: a PIDE, a censura e o declínio do regime

This topic carries the first sub-theme of Edexcel's fourth theme, Tema 4: Como a História moldou a Política — the sub-theme A ditadura de Salazar, across its three aspects of a PIDE e a censura, o impacto da ditadura na sociedade da época, and a ditadura em declínio nos finais dos anos 60 e princípios dos anos 70. Like Temas 1 and 3, Tema 4 is set in the context of Portugal only, and the specification files it under political culture past and present. This is the most sensitive material in the qualification. The Estado Novo ended in 1974, which is within living memory; there are people alive in Portugal who were imprisoned by its political police, who were censored, who fought in its colonial war, who emigrated to escape it, and there are also people who lived under it without any of that and remember it differently. Their descendants are among the readers of these notes. The method here is therefore the one that italian applied to Fascism, russian to 1985 to 1991 and arabic to its own fourth theme: dated, documented facts — when a law was passed, when an institution was created or abolished, what a text says — are stated flatly; every interpretation is attributed to whoever holds it and named as an interpretation; live debates are presented as debates; no statistic is invented; and no quotation or testimony is fabricated. The weight is kept deliberately on the Portuguese, because it is the Portuguese that the examination assesses.

5 sections·~42 min reading time·4 competencies·Level Advanced 5

T·0555 / 12
Exam profile
AO1 · Understand and respond in writing to spoken Portuguese about history, memory and public institutionsAO2 · Understand and respond in writing to written Portuguese of historical and documentary registerAO3 · Manipulate Portuguese accurately, using the vocabulary of the state, repression and public life, and the past tenses that history requiresAO4 · Show knowledge and understanding of, and respond critically to, the Portuguese dictatorship and its legacy
Operators:descreveranalisarexplicaravaliarcontextualizaratribuirdiscutirjustificar

basic level

At first-year standard the expectation is accurate chronological description with a personal response: what the regime was, when it existed, what censorship and the political police did, and what the student thinks about it — with correct vocabulary, secure past tenses and accurate agreement.

higher level

The full A-Level expects dated evidence used as argument rather than as chronicle, interpretations attributed to those who hold them, the naming of contested events treated as itself a question, and restraint where the record is disputed. Answers must never fabricate a figure, a quotation or a piece of testimony, and must not present one memory of the period as the memory of it.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 5 sections▾
  1. A ditadura de Salazar: a PIDE, a censura e o declínio do regime
    • 01What the Estado Novo was: institutions, dates and the words for them●
    • 02A PIDE e a censura●
    • 03O impacto da ditadura na sociedade da época●
    • 04A ditadura em declínio: finais dos anos 60, princípios dos anos 70●
    • 05Writing about contested history in Portuguese: tenses, attribution, naming●
§ 01

What the Estado Novo was: institutions, dates and the words for them#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — A ditadura de SalazarLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

How the Estado Novo reached a person's daily life

The Estado Novo's institutions and what they acted onGraph, Estado Novo → União Nacional, Estado Novo → PIDE, Estado Novo → Censura, Estado Novo → Corporativismo, Estado Novo → Mocidade Portuguesa, Censura → Imprensa, livros, teatro, PIDE → Prisões políticas, Corporativismo → Sindicatos nacionais, Imprensa, livros, teatro → A vida quotidiana, Prisões políticas → A vida quotidiana, Sindicatos nacionais → A vida quotidiana, Mocidade Portuguesa → A vida quotidianaEstado NovoUnião NacionalPIDECensuraCorporativismoMocidadePortuguesaImprensa,livros, teatroPrisõespolíticasSindicatosnacionaisA vidaquotidiana
Fig. 1The institutions the sub-theme names, arranged by what they acted on rather than by rank, because that is the question the second aspect asks. Reading down: the regime's political core, then the instruments through which it reached publication, work, schooling and the street. Nothing here is an evaluation — every box is an institution that existed, with the name it had — and the point of the drawing is that a claim about the dictatorship's impact on society has to name a mechanism on this diagram or it is a claim about nothing in particular.

Key points

Before any argument can be made, the institutional facts have to be in place, and they are documentable and can be stated flatly. A military coup on 28 May 1926 ended the First Republic, which had been proclaimed in 1910. António de Oliveira Salazar, a professor of finance at Coimbra, became Minister of Finance in 1928 with exceptional powers over public spending, and Presidente do Conselho de Ministros — head of government — in 1932. A new constitution approved in 1933 gave the regime its name, o Estado Novo, and its legal form. Salazar remained head of government until 1968, when illness incapacitated him and Marcelo Caetano was appointed in his place; Salazar died in 1970. The regime ended on 25 April 1974. Those dates are the spine of the whole theme, and a candidate should be able to produce them without hesitation, because everything else attaches to them.
The regime's institutions have names that must be used accurately, since a text or a recording will use them without gloss. A União Nacional was the single legal political organisation, renamed Ação Nacional Popular under Caetano; it was not a party in the competitive sense, because no competing party was permitted. A Assembleia Nacional was the legislature and a Câmara Corporativa the consultative chamber representing the corporações, since the Estado Novo defined itself as a corporatist state — o corporativismo — in which free trade unions were replaced by sindicatos nacionais and strikes were prohibited. A Mocidade Portuguesa was the compulsory youth organisation and a Legião Portuguesa a paramilitary militia. The regime's motto, printed and displayed publicly, was Deus, Pátria, Família. Naming these correctly is the difference between an answer that has studied Portugal and one that has studied a generic dictatorship.
The vocabulary of the period is a set worth learning together, because it recurs in every source. Uma ditadura and um regime autoritário; o Estado Novo; a oposição; um preso político; o exílio and um exilado; a clandestinidade for underground activity and um partido clandestino; a repressão; a propaganda, handled by a body known as the Secretariado de Propaganda Nacional and later renamed. For the constitutional layer: a Constituição de 1933, o plebiscito, as eleições, o sufrágio, o Presidente da República, o Presidente do Conselho. And for the historiography: o Estado Novo, o salazarismo, o marcelismo for the Caetano period, and o fascismo — a word whose applicability to the Estado Novo is itself debated among historians, some arguing that the regime was fascist and others that it was conservative-authoritarian and clerical rather than fascist in the Italian or German sense. That is a real scholarly disagreement, and a candidate who names it as one is doing history rather than repeating a label.
Two facts about the regime's international position are worth knowing because they complicate the picture usefully and are entirely documented. Portugal remained formally neutral in the Second World War while maintaining relations with both sides, and was a founding member of NATO in 1949 — an authoritarian state inside the Atlantic alliance from its first day. Portugal was also a founding member of EFTA in 1960. A candidate who knows this can answer the question of why the regime lasted as long as it did with something better than a generalisation about repression: it had external partners with reasons to accommodate it. Whether those relationships prolonged the regime, and by how much, is a matter of historical argument and belongs behind an attribution, but the memberships themselves are simply facts.
Worked example

Using dated evidence as argument rather than chronicle

You have these five documented facts and need to build them into a paragraph of argued Portuguese rather than a list: the 1933 constitution; NATO membership from 1949; the colonial war beginning in Angola in 1961; Salazar's replacement by Caetano in 1968; the end of the regime in 1974. Show the difference between chronicle and argument.

  1. 01See what the chronicle version does wrong

    A chronicle reads: Em 1933 foi aprovada a Constituição. Em 1949 Portugal aderiu à NATO. Em 1961 começou a guerra em Angola. Em 1968 Caetano substituiu Salazar. Em 1974 o regime terminou. Every sentence is true and the paragraph is worth very little, because the AO4 grid rewards analysis and this is a list. The five facts are doing no work on each other. The fix is not to add adjectives but to make each date answer a question posed by the one before.

  2. 02Choose the question the dates will answer

    The obvious one, and the one a Section C statement is likely to pose, is why the regime lasted as long as it did. Once the question is chosen, the dates stop being a sequence and become evidence, and the paragraph acquires a direction. State the question first: A questão que estes factos ajudam a responder é a de saber por que razão o regime durou quase meio século. Ajudar a responder is the right verb pairing; por que razão is more formal than porquê and better in this register.

  3. 03Make the first two dates work together

    A Constituição de 1933 deu ao regime uma forma legal, e a adesão à NATO, em 1949, deu-lhe algo de mais valioso: aliados com interesse em que se mantivesse estável. Two facts, one sentence, one claim. Algo de mais valioso is a comparative with the partitive de that Portuguese requires. Em que se mantivesse is a subjunctive after interesse em que — a verb of wishing in the wide sense, which Appendix 2 lists among the subjunctive triggers. The claim is defensible because it is about interests rather than intentions.

  4. 04Turn the third date into the counter-pressure

    A partir de 1961, porém, o mesmo enquadramento internacional passou a funcionar contra o regime: a guerra em África tornou-se cada vez mais difícil de justificar perante os seus próprios aliados. A partir de is from onwards. Passar a plus infinitive, the change-of-practice construction. Perante is before or in the face of. Note the hedge that is not a hedge: cada vez mais difícil de justificar is a directional claim about a documented diplomatic difficulty, not an invented statistic.

  5. 05Let the last two dates close the argument, with an attribution

    A substituição de Salazar por Caetano, em 1968, é lida por alguns historiadores como uma tentativa tardia de reforma e por outros como uma continuidade sem rutura; o que é certo é que, seis anos depois, foram militares vindos dessa guerra que puseram fim ao regime. É lida por … e por … names the disagreement without adjudicating it, and lida por historiadores makes clear whose reading it is. O que é certo é que marks the boundary between what is disputed and what is not. Militares vindos dessa guerra is the sentence's real argumentative move: it ties 1961 to 1974 causally, which is what turns five dates into one explanation.

Result: A questão que estes factos ajudam a responder é a de saber por que razão o regime durou quase meio século. A Constituição de 1933 deu-lhe uma forma legal, e a adesão à NATO, em 1949, deu-lhe algo de mais valioso: aliados com interesse em que se mantivesse estável. A partir de 1961, porém, o mesmo enquadramento internacional passou a funcionar contra o regime, porque a guerra em África se tornou cada vez mais difícil de justificar perante esses aliados. A substituição de Salazar por Caetano, em 1968, é lida por alguns historiadores como uma tentativa tardia de reforma e por outros como uma continuidade sem rutura; o que é certo é que, seis anos depois, foram militares vindos dessa guerra que puseram fim ao regime.

Exam focus

  • The spine of dates: 1926 coup, 1928 Salazar to Finance, 1932 head of government, 1933 constitution, 1968 Caetano, 1974 the end (AO4).
  • União Nacional, Assembleia Nacional, Câmara Corporativa, sindicatos nacionais, Mocidade Portuguesa, Legião Portuguesa — names, used accurately (AO3).
  • Whether the Estado Novo was fascist is a genuine scholarly dispute. Name it as a dispute rather than settling it.
  • NATO 1949 and EFTA 1960 are documented facts that complicate any simple account of isolation.

Typical mistakes

  • Calling the União Nacional a political party in the competitive sense. No competing party was legal.
  • Describing Salazar as President. He was Presidente do Conselho, the head of government; the Presidente da República was a separate office.
  • Asserting flatly that the Estado Novo was fascist, or flatly that it was not. Historians disagree, and the disagreement is the interesting part.
  • Treating the regime as internationally isolated throughout, which the NATO and EFTA memberships contradict.

Active revision

Write the spine of this sub-theme from memory: a list of eight dates between 1926 and 1974, each with one clause in Portuguese saying what happened. Then, without looking anything up, write 100 words in Portuguese explaining how the regime was organised, using at least five of the institutional names correctly. Check every name letter by letter — a misremembered institution is a factual error, not a spelling slip.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 02

A PIDE e a censura#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — A ditadura de Salazar: a PIDE e a censuraLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The first aspect names two institutions, and both have precise identities that a candidate should get right. The political police went through three names: it was created in 1933 as the PVDE, a Polícia de Vigilância e de Defesa do Estado; renamed in 1945 as the PIDE, a Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado — the name the specification uses, and the one that survives in Portuguese memory; and renamed again in 1969, under Caetano, as the DGS, a Direção-Geral de Segurança. The renaming of 1969 is worth knowing precisely because it is often cited in the argument about how much the Caetano period actually changed: the institution continued, with the same building and largely the same personnel, under a new name. Whether that renaming amounted to reform or to relabelling is exactly the kind of question the AO4 grid wants argued rather than assumed.
What the political police did is documented and can be stated without embellishment. It conducted surveillance of political opponents; it detained people for political offences, including under provisions that allowed detention to be extended by administrative decision; it interrogated detainees; and it maintained an extensive file system. Political prisoners were held at, among other places, the fortress at Peniche, the prison at Caxias, and the camp at Tarrafal in Cabo Verde, which opened in 1936. Portuguese has a precise vocabulary for all of this — a vigilância, a detenção, o interrogatório, a prisão preventiva, um preso político, um informador, a delação for informing on someone — and using it accurately is both good Portuguese and a form of precision that keeps the account honest. What should not be produced is a number: how many people were detained, imprisoned or died is the subject of research and of dispute, and a figure recalled under examination pressure would be a guess presented as evidence.
Censorship was prior censorship — a censura prévia — meaning that material was submitted before publication rather than prosecuted afterwards, and it applied to the press, to books, to theatre, to cinema and to broadcasting. The censors' mark, o lápis azul, the blue pencil, became the popular name for the whole apparatus, and newspapers of the period carried a printed statement that an issue had been seen by the censorship commission. The consequences for writing were structural rather than only prohibitive: writers and journalists developed forms of indirect expression, and Portuguese has a word for what results, o subterfúgio, alongside a metáfora and the description escrever nas entrelinhas, to write between the lines. A candidate who understands that censorship shapes what gets written as well as what gets banned has something to say about the literature and journalism of the period that a list of prohibitions cannot supply.
Two points of method govern this aspect. First, distinguish the institution from the experience. That the PIDE existed, was created in a given year and operated certain prisons is institutional fact. What it was like to be watched, detained or interrogated is testimony, and testimony must come from a real source or not be produced at all — inventing it would be both a fabrication and, given who reads these notes, an offence. The correct register is reported and attributed: segundo os testemunhos recolhidos por historiadores, or o testemunho de antigos presos políticos descreve. Second, resist the temptation to write the period as a single experience. Portugal under the Estado Novo contained people who were persecuted by it, people who supported it, and a great many who lived under it without either, and Portuguese public argument about how the period should be remembered is live and unfinished. Presenting one memory as the memory is a claim about the country that no examination candidate is in a position to make.
Worked example

Reading strategy on a concrete passage: historical prose with an embedded dispute (Paper 1 Section B)

Work through this the way you would in Paper 1 Section B. Em 1969, a polícia política mudou de nome, passando a designar-se Direção-Geral de Segurança. A alteração foi apresentada pelo governo como parte de um processo de abertura; os seus críticos observaram, à época, que o edifício, os quadros e os métodos permaneciam os mesmos. Historiadores que estudaram o período dividem-se: uns leem o período de Caetano como uma tentativa genuína, embora limitada, de reforma; outros como uma continuidade com nova fachada.

  1. 01Read mudou de nome as the passage's subject, not its detail

    Em 1969, a polícia política mudou de nome. Mudar de plus a noun without an article is the Portuguese pattern for changing something you have — mudar de nome, mudar de casa, mudar de ideias. A reader who translates it as changed the name will look for an object and find none. The whole passage is about what a renaming does and does not mean, and this opening clause is the fact everything else disputes.

  2. 02Catch the gerund construction carrying the consequence

    Passando a designar-se Direção-Geral de Segurança. Two things at once: passar a plus infinitive, the change-of-practice construction met earlier, and designar-se, the reflexive for being called or styled. The gerund passando attaches the renaming to the preceding clause as its content. In European Portuguese a bare gerund like this is used in written prose for exactly this linking function, even though estar a plus infinitive is the ordinary progressive.

  3. 03Notice who is doing the presenting, because it is the hinge

    A alteração foi apresentada pelo governo como parte de um processo de abertura. Ser plus participle with pela — an action passive with a named agent — and apresentar algo como is to present something as. The sentence does not say the change was part of an opening; it says the government presented it as such. That distinction is the whole reading skill this passage is teaching, and a comprehension question asking o que é que o texto afirma sobre a mudança must be answered with the attribution intact.

  4. 04Read the critics' clause and the tense that dates it

    Os seus críticos observaram, à época, que o edifício, os quadros e os métodos permaneciam os mesmos. Observaram is perfeito, a completed act of observing; permaneciam is imperfect, a continuing state — the tense pair is doing chronological work. À época means at the time, which matters because it establishes that this was said then rather than in retrospect. Os quadros here means the staff or personnel, not pictures or frames, and it is a genuine false friend that a reader can easily get wrong.

  5. 05Handle dividem-se and the two readings it introduces

    Historiadores que estudaram o período dividem-se: uns leem … outros … Dividir-se is to be divided, reflexive; the colon introduces the two positions. Uns … outros is the paired indefinite, and leem is the third-person plural of ler, written without a circumflex under the Acordo where older texts print lêem. Embora limitada is a concession inside the first position — an interpretation that is itself qualified. If a question asks qual é a posição do texto, the answer is that the text takes none: it reports a disagreement, and saying so is the correct response. A candidate who picks one of the two readings and attributes it to the text has misread it.

Result: In 1969 the political police changed its name, becoming the Direção-Geral de Segurança. The change was presented by the government as part of a process of opening up; its critics observed at the time that the building, the personnel and the methods remained the same. Historians who have studied the period are divided: some read the Caetano years as a genuine, if limited, attempt at reform; others as a continuity with a new façade.

Exam focus

  • PVDE 1933, PIDE 1945, DGS 1969 — three names, one continuity, and the 1969 renaming is itself evidence in the reform argument (AO4).
  • Censura prévia means submitted before publication. That is structurally different from prosecution afterwards (AO2).
  • Peniche, Caxias, Tarrafal are documented places. Numbers of detainees are researched and disputed, and must not be invented.
  • Testimony is reported and attributed, never fabricated. Escrever nas entrelinhas names what censorship does to writing.

Typical mistakes

  • Using PIDE as the name of the institution throughout its whole existence. It was PVDE before 1945 and DGS after 1969.
  • Producing a figure for arrests, imprisonments or deaths. These are researched, disputed and not recallable under exam conditions.
  • Inventing a first-person account of detention. Report and attribute, or leave it out.
  • Writing the period as one universal experience rather than as a country that remembers it in more than one way.

Active revision

Write 200 words in Portuguese on censorship under the Estado Novo, arranged as: what censorship formally was, what it applied to, what it did to how people wrote, and what is disputed about its effects. The first three paragraphs must contain no evaluative adjectives and no numbers; the fourth must contain nothing but attributed positions. Then reread and mark every sentence F for fact, A for attributed, or neither — and rewrite anything in the third category.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 03

O impacto da ditadura na sociedade da época#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — A ditadura de Salazar: o impacto da ditadura na sociedade da épocaLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The second aspect asks about impact on the society of the time, and the phrase da época is doing real work: the question is about the lived Portugal of the period, not about the regime's legacy today. The impact can be described through mechanisms that are documented and that a candidate can name without a single statistic. Education: schooling was limited for much of the period and literacy in Portugal was low by Western European standards, a fact that features in almost every account of the era. Work: free trade unions were replaced by sindicatos nacionais and strikes were prohibited, which removed the ordinary instrument for improving wages and conditions. Movement: emigration on a very large scale, much of it clandestine and known as a emigração a salto, both because of poverty and, from 1961, because of conscription into the colonial war. Public life: no competing party, censored press, and a political police. Each of those is a mechanism through which a political system reached an ordinary life.
The position of women under the regime is a documented and important part of the answer to this aspect, and it connects Tema 4 directly to Tema 1. The Estado Novo's official ideology placed the family at the centre of the social order — the motto Deus, Pátria, Família is not decoration — and legal and administrative arrangements of the period restricted married women's autonomy in areas including travel, employment in certain occupations, and the disposal of property. The organisation known as the Obra das Mães pela Educação Nacional was an instrument of that ideology, as was the female section of the Mocidade Portuguesa. The Constitution of 1976 and the legislation that followed changed the legal position substantially, and that contrast is one of the clearest single illustrations available of the theme's own title: how history shaped politics.
The colonial war is the aspect's largest single fact after 1961 and it must be named accurately, including the fact that its name is contested. In Portugal it is commonly called a Guerra Colonial and was called by the regime a Guerra do Ultramar, the overseas war; in Angola, Moçambique and Guiné-Bissau the same conflict is generally called a luta or guerra de libertação nacional. Those are not three ways of saying one thing; they are three claims about what the conflict was, and a candidate who notices that is doing exactly the kind of analysis the AO4 grid rewards. Its impact on Portuguese society of the period is describable: conscription over many years, o serviço militar obrigatório, with long tours in Africa; the departure abroad of large numbers of young men avoiding it; and the sustained diversion of public spending. The consequences for the African countries themselves are outside the scope of a Tema 4 answer, which is set in Portugal only, but a candidate should know that they exist rather than write as though the war happened only to Portugal.
The honest treatment of this aspect requires one further thing, and it is the hardest. Public argument in Portugal about how the Estado Novo should be remembered is unfinished. Some emphasise repression, poverty and the war; others emphasise stability, or particular public works, or a personal memory of an ordinary childhood; and there is a distinct scholarly literature about how and why regimes are remembered selectively. A candidate is entitled to a view and the AO4 grid asks for one. What the grid does not ask for, and what an examiner will read as a weakness, is a verdict delivered as though the question were settled and everyone who remembers differently were simply wrong. The strongest available move is to state the documented mechanisms, acknowledge that memory of the period is plural, and then argue for a reading on the basis of the mechanisms rather than of the memory.
Worked example

Translation Portuguese into English: a passage where a name is a claim (Paper 1 Section A)

Render this into English. Durante mais de uma década, o país esteve envolvido num conflito que o regime designava por guerra do ultramar e que hoje é geralmente conhecido, em Portugal, como guerra colonial. Nos países onde decorreu, chama-se-lhe luta de libertação. A escolha das palavras nunca foi inocente: cada designação encerra uma tese sobre o que ali esteve em causa.

  1. 01Get the duration phrase and the passive-ish opening

    Durante mais de uma década, o país esteve envolvido num conflito. Durante is for the whole of a period; mais de uma década is more than a decade, with de after mais because a number or quantity follows. Esteve envolvido is estar plus participle — a state, correctly, because being involved is a condition rather than an act — and rendering it as was involved is exactly right. Num is em + um.

  2. 02Read designar por as a marked verb of naming

    Que o regime designava por guerra do ultramar. Designar algo por is to call or designate something as, and the imperfect designava marks it as habitual usage over the period rather than a single act of naming. The relative que refers to conflito. The key comprehension point is that the sentence attributes this name to the regime rather than using it: which the regime called the overseas war. A translation that drops the attribution — the overseas war — misrepresents the passage.

  3. 03Handle the second relative and the adverbial insertion

    E que hoje é geralmente conhecido, em Portugal, como guerra colonial. Ser conhecido como is to be known as. The commas around em Portugal are load-bearing: they restrict the claim geographically, which the following sentence then contrasts. Hoje against designava sets present usage against past usage. Note that the passage now has two names for one conflict and has attributed each to a different place or time — the whole structure is comparative.

  4. 04Untangle chama-se-lhe, which is genuinely difficult

    Nos países onde decorreu, chama-se-lhe luta de libertação. Two clitics: the impersonal se and the indirect object lhe, in that order, joined by hyphens — one is called it, or in idiomatic English it is called. Chamar with lhe and a predicate noun is the standard Portuguese construction for naming something. Decorrer is to take place or unfold, and here decorreu is perfeito. In the countries where it took place, it is called a war of liberation. A reader who takes se as reflexive will get nowhere; recognising the impersonal se plus lhe pattern is the point of the sentence.

  5. 05Render the final abstraction without inflating it

    A escolha das palavras nunca foi inocente: cada designação encerra uma tese sobre o que ali esteve em causa. Nunca foi inocente is was never innocent — a litotes, and translating it as was always deliberate would lose the tone. Encerrar is a false friend of considerable danger: it means to contain or enclose here, not to close or end. Uma tese is a thesis or claim. O que ali esteve em causa is what was at issue there, with ali doing the deictic work. The passage's closing sentence is its argument, and a comprehension question would almost certainly be built on it.

Result: For more than a decade, the country was involved in a conflict that the regime called the overseas war and that is today generally known in Portugal as the colonial war. In the countries where it took place, it is called a war of liberation. The choice of words was never innocent: each name contains a claim about what was at stake there.

Exam focus

  • Da época means the society of the time, not the legacy today. Answer the question that was asked (AO4).
  • Mechanisms: schooling, sindicatos nacionais and the strike ban, emigração a salto, conscription, censored public life (AO4).
  • The war's name is contested — Guerra Colonial, Guerra do Ultramar, luta de libertação nacional — and noticing that is analysis.
  • Memory of the period is plural in Portugal. Argue from mechanisms, not from a claim about what everyone remembers.

Typical mistakes

  • Answering about the legacy today when the aspect specifies the society of the time.
  • Using Guerra do Ultramar as though it were a neutral term. It was the regime's own name for the conflict.
  • Producing figures for emigration, conscription or casualties. All are researched, disputed and not recallable safely.
  • Writing as though everyone in Portugal remembers the period the same way.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Portuguese on the impact of the dictatorship on the society of its own time, organised by mechanism rather than by chronology: one paragraph each on work, movement, schooling and public life. Every paragraph must name at least one institution or legal arrangement. Then add a closing sentence that acknowledges the plurality of memory without abandoning your argument. Check that no sentence contains a number other than a year.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 04

A ditadura em declínio: finais dos anos 60, princípios dos anos 70#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — A ditadura de Salazar: a ditadura em declínio, Portugal nos finais dos anos 60 e princípios dos anos 70LPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The third aspect is dated precisely — the late 1960s and early 1970s — and the precision is a gift, because it narrows the material to a period in which several documented pressures converge. Salazar was incapacitated in 1968 and Marcelo Caetano became head of government; the period that followed is called o marcelismo, and the phrase a Primavera Marcelista is used in Portuguese for its early, more permissive phase. The colonial war, running since 1961 in Angola, since 1963 in Guiné and since 1964 in Moçambique, was by now consuming a large and sustained share of public spending and of the country's young men. Emigration continued on a large scale. And Portugal's relationship with Western Europe was becoming economically closer while remaining politically anomalous. Each of those is a documented pressure, and together they are the answer to why the aspect is called declínio.
The Caetano period is the aspect's central interpretative problem, and a candidate should treat it as one rather than resolving it in a clause. Measures taken in the period included some liberalisation of censorship in practice, the renaming of the political police, the readmission of some exiles, and reforms in education; opposition groups were permitted to campaign in the 1969 legislative elections, though the elections themselves were not competitive in any meaningful sense. Against that, the war continued and intensified, the fundamental structures were not dismantled, and the political police continued to operate under its new name. Whether the marcelismo was a genuine attempt at reform frustrated by circumstance, or a managed continuity that never intended structural change, is a real and continuing historical argument, and it is one of the best places in the whole specification to demonstrate that you can hold a disputed question open while still reaching a judgement.
The vocabulary of decline is worth having assembled, because it is what a source will use. A abertura for the opening; a liberalização; a contestação for opposition activity and o descontentamento for discontent; a crise; o desgaste, meaning the wearing-down of a regime over time, which is the precise Portuguese word for what the aspect describes; o isolamento internacional; a fuga ao serviço militar for draft evasion; a agitação estudantil for student unrest, of which the crise académica in Coimbra in 1969 is a documented episode. For the closing years: o esgotamento do regime, its exhaustion. A candidate who can use desgaste and esgotamento accurately is writing about decline in the register a Portuguese historian would use, and that register is itself worth marks under the AO3 range grid.
One structural point makes this aspect analytically satisfying and is worth building an argument on. The pressures that ended the regime were not, in the main, the ones that had opposed it for forty years. The clandestine opposition, the exiles and the imprisoned had opposed it since the 1930s without bringing it down; what brought it down in 1974 was a movement inside the armed forces, composed largely of career officers who had fought its war. That is a documented fact about who acted, and it supports a genuinely interesting claim: that the regime was ended by the consequences of its own colonial policy rather than by its declared opponents. Like every causal claim in this material it should be argued rather than asserted, and a candidate should acknowledge that the long opposition shaped what came afterwards even where it did not deliver the decisive blow.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section C: an opening that holds a disputed question open while taking a position

The Section C statement reads: O período de Marcelo Caetano foi uma tentativa genuína de reforma. Você concorda? An unseen Portuguese text sets out several measures taken in the period and then quotes a historian arguing that the war made structural reform impossible. Your research subject is Tema 4's, Os Descobrimentos, so this material reaches you as context rather than as your research. Show how the first 150 words should be built.

  1. 01Take a position that specifies rather than splits

    Concordo que houve uma tentativa, mas não que ela fosse genuína no sentido de estrutural. A distinção parece-me decisiva e é dela que depende a resposta. Note the subjunctive fosse under não concordo que — negated verbs of opinion take the subjunctive, which is one of the triggers Appendix 2 lists and one of the most reliably rewarded structures available in this task. Splitting the statement's key word rather than the statement itself gives you a line of argument instead of a compromise.

  2. 02Concede the documented measures immediately and specifically

    Está documentado que houve medidas: alguma abertura na prática da censura, a readmissão de exilados, reformas no ensino, a autorização dada à oposição para fazer campanha em 1969. Naming four things in one sentence establishes that you know the period, and doing it in the concession rather than in your own argument is rhetorically strong — you are conceding from strength. Está documentado que is a useful frame that separates the record from the interpretation.

  3. 03Introduce the criterion that will settle the question

    A questão não é, porém, se houve medidas, mas se alguma delas tocou nas estruturas que definiam o regime: o partido único, a polícia política e a guerra. Naming the criterion is the move that turns an opinion into an argument, and here the criterion generates the answer, since the reader can already see that none of the four conceded measures touches the three named structures. Tocar em is to touch on. Definiam is imperfect, describing a continuing state.

  4. 04Use the text's own historian, since AO2 marks it

    O texto cita um historiador que sustenta que a guerra tornava impossível qualquer reforma estrutural, e essa observação apoia a minha leitura por um caminho ligeiramente diferente do meu. Naming the source, reporting it with a verb that marks it as argument rather than fact, and then saying how it relates to your own position is the AO2 grid's ten marks earned deliberately. Note the honesty of por um caminho ligeiramente diferente — you are not pretending the historian said what you are saying.

  5. 05Signal the counter-argument you will answer

    A leitura contrária tem, ainda assim, um argumento sério, que a resposta considerará adiante: se a guerra impedia a reforma, então a intenção reformista pode ter sido genuína e apenas irrealizável. Naming the strongest objection in the opening, and promising to answer it, is what the top AO4 band means by sustaining a line of argument. Impedia is imperfect; pode ter sido is the perfect infinitive under a modal, from Appendix 2's list. In 150 words the examiner now knows the position, the criterion, the evidence and the objection.

Result: Concordo que houve uma tentativa, mas não que ela fosse genuína no sentido de estrutural. A distinção parece-me decisiva e é dela que depende a resposta. Está documentado que houve medidas: alguma abertura na prática da censura, a readmissão de exilados, reformas no ensino, a autorização dada à oposição para fazer campanha em 1969. A questão não é, porém, se houve medidas, mas se alguma delas tocou nas estruturas que definiam o regime: o partido único, a polícia política e a guerra. O texto cita um historiador que sustenta que a guerra tornava impossível qualquer reforma estrutural, e essa observação apoia a minha leitura por um caminho ligeiramente diferente do meu. A leitura contrária tem, ainda assim, um argumento sério, que considerarei adiante: se a guerra impedia a reforma, a intenção reformista pode ter sido genuína e apenas irrealizável.

Exam focus

  • The aspect is dated: late 1960s and early 1970s. Do not drift back to 1933 or forward past April 1974 (AO4).
  • Marcelismo and the Primavera Marcelista are the terms. Whether the period was reform or managed continuity is the argument.
  • Desgaste and esgotamento are the precise Portuguese nouns for the wearing-down of a regime (AO3).
  • The decisive actors in 1974 came from inside the armed forces, not from the long-standing opposition. That is a claim worth arguing.

Typical mistakes

  • Treating the marcelismo as straightforwardly liberalising, or straightforwardly cosmetic. Both are positions; the question is argued.
  • Writing about the whole dictatorship in answer to a question dated to its last years.
  • Assuming the clandestine opposition brought the regime down. The movement that acted in 1974 came from within the armed forces.
  • Inventing figures for war spending, conscription or draft evasion. All are researched and disputed.

Active revision

Write 200 words in Portuguese arguing either that the Caetano period was a genuine attempt at reform or that it was a managed continuity. Name at least three specific measures or non-measures, attribute the opposing reading fairly before answering it, and use desgaste or esgotamento at least once. Then check that every sentence about the period is dated to the late 1960s or early 1970s and that nothing has drifted into the 1930s.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 05

Writing about contested history in Portuguese: tenses, attribution, naming#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Tema 4 — Como a História moldou a PolíticaLPPearson Edexcel 9PG0 Appendix 2 — Indicative tenses; the subjunctive; indirect speech; connectives

Key points

Writing history in Portuguese is a grammatical skill before it is a historical one, and the grammar is mostly a matter of the past tenses handled correctly across a long paragraph. The pretérito perfeito carries the events: o golpe ocorreu, a Constituição foi aprovada, o regime terminou. The imperfeito carries the conditions those events happened inside: não existiam partidos legais, a censura era prévia, muitos jovens emigravam. The pluperfect, compound or synthetic, marks anything prior to the moment being narrated: quando Caetano tomou posse, a guerra já durava há sete anos. Alternating these three correctly is what makes a Portuguese historical paragraph read as history rather than as a list, and it is exactly what the AO3 accuracy grid is looking at when a candidate writes about the past at length.
The second skill is attribution, and Portuguese offers a graded set that lets you say precisely how firmly a claim is held. For the record itself: está documentado que, sabe-se que, os documentos mostram que. For scholarly interpretation: os historiadores dividem-se quanto a, alguns autores defendem que, a historiografia recente tem sublinhado que, é uma leitura contestada. For contemporary opinion: à época, os críticos observaram que, o governo apresentou a medida como. For your own judgement: parece-me que, na minha leitura, inclino-me para. A paragraph in which every sentence sits in one of those registers is a paragraph an examiner can trust, and trust is what the AO4 grid's higher bands are measuring when they distinguish justified argument from assertion.
The third skill is naming, and in this theme it is not a stylistic matter. Several of the period's central objects have more than one name, and each name carries a claim: Guerra Colonial against Guerra do Ultramar against luta de libertação nacional; Revolução dos Cravos against 25 de Abril against, in some usages, o golpe; Estado Novo against ditadura against fascismo. A candidate writing in Portuguese is choosing among these every time they write a noun phrase, and the choice is visible. The best practice is to use the neutral or most widely accepted term as your default, to name the alternatives explicitly at least once when the disagreement is relevant, and never to use a partisan term as though it were neutral. Doing this well is not caution; under a grid that rewards critical analysis of culture and society, it is one of the clearest possible demonstrations of it.
The fourth discipline is the one that governs everything else in this theme and is worth stating plainly: nothing is invented. No number of prisoners, no casualty figure, no percentage, no quotation from Salazar or Caetano or anyone else, no piece of testimony, no anecdote. The reason is partly that the examination allows no notes and no dictionary, so anything produced from memory is unverifiable; but it is more than a procedural rule. This is a period with survivors, and a fabricated quotation or an invented statistic about it is not a technical error but a falsification of something that happened to people. The good news, and it is genuinely good news for a candidate, is that the qualification does not need any of it. The AO4 grid rewards ideas supported by information, examples and references, and a named institution, a dated law, an attributed historical reading and a well-built argument satisfy that requirement completely.
Worked example

One grammar decision walked through: three past tenses across a single historical paragraph

Write a 90-word paragraph in Portuguese about the position of the political police in the last years of the regime, using the pretérito perfeito, the imperfeito and a pluperfect, with every interpretation attributed. Work each choice out loud.

  1. 01Open with a condition, so the imperfeito comes first

    Nos últimos anos do regime, a polícia política continuava a ser o instrumento central do controlo interno. Continuava is imperfect: a sustained state across a period, not an event. Continuar a ser is the European progressive. Opening on a condition rather than an event sets the scene the events will happen inside, which is how historical prose is built, and it also puts the reader in the period before anything moves.

  2. 02Introduce the event in the perfeito

    Em 1969, mudou de nome e passou a designar-se Direção-Geral de Segurança. Two perfeitos for two completed acts in a named year. Mudar de nome without an article, as before. Note that the year appears once and governs both verbs — repeating em 1969 would be clumsy, and Portuguese, like English, lets the adverbial scope over the coordinated verbs.

  3. 03Reach backwards with the pluperfect

    A instituição fora criada em 1933 com outra designação e tinha atravessado, desde então, três nomes diferentes. Fora criada is the synthetic pluperfect of ser plus a participle — the literary register, entirely appropriate in historical writing, and worth producing deliberately once because the AO3 range grid notices it. Tinha atravessado is the compound pluperfect for a duration reaching up to the narrated moment. Using both forms in one sentence demonstrates the pair rather than merely one of them. Desde então is since then.

  4. 04Attribute the interpretation, and mark it as one

    O governo apresentou a mudança como parte de uma abertura; os historiadores dividem-se quanto a saber se o foi. Apresentou is perfeito, an act of presenting. Dividem-se is present, because the disagreement is current. Quanto a saber se is the formula for as to whether. The clitic o in se o foi stands in for the whole predicate part of an opening — a neat and very Portuguese economy, and one worth learning because it lets you refer back to a proposition in a single letter.

  5. 05Close with your own judgement, marked as yours

    Na minha leitura, o facto de o edifício e os quadros terem permanecido os mesmos pesa mais do que a mudança de nome. Na minha leitura marks the judgement. O facto de plus the personal infinitive terem permanecido is the structure Appendix 2 lists — an inflected infinitive with its own subject, o edifício e os quadros, avoiding a heavier que clause. Pesar mais do que is to weigh more than, a comparative from the grammar list. The paragraph now contains all three past tenses, a documented fact, an attributed dispute and a marked personal judgement in ninety words.

Result: Nos últimos anos do regime, a polícia política continuava a ser o instrumento central do controlo interno. Em 1969, mudou de nome e passou a designar-se Direção-Geral de Segurança. A instituição fora criada em 1933 com outra designação e tinha atravessado, desde então, três nomes diferentes. O governo apresentou a mudança como parte de uma abertura; os historiadores dividem-se quanto a saber se o foi. Na minha leitura, o facto de o edifício e os quadros terem permanecido os mesmos pesa mais do que a mudança de nome.

Exam focus

  • Perfeito for events, imperfeito for conditions, pluperfect for what came before. Alternate them across the paragraph (AO3).
  • Grade your attributions: está documentado que, os historiadores dividem-se quanto a, à época os críticos observaram, parece-me que (AO4).
  • Names carry claims. Use the neutral term by default, name the alternatives once, never use a partisan term as if neutral.
  • Invent nothing: no figures, no quotations, no testimony. The grid does not need them and the subject does not permit them.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing an entire historical paragraph in the pretérito perfeito, which flattens conditions into events.
  • Presenting a historian's interpretation without saying it is one, which reads as an unsupported assertion.
  • Using Guerra do Ultramar or o golpe as though either were the neutral term.
  • Producing a plausible-sounding statistic or quotation. Both are fabrications, and both are avoidable.

Active revision

Take any 150-word paragraph you have written about the Estado Novo and mark it up in three colours: events in the perfeito, conditions in the imperfeito, and anything prior in the pluperfect. Then mark every claim F for documented, I for attributed interpretation, or J for your own judgement, and check that each carries the right frame. Any sentence you cannot classify is a sentence that needs rewriting before it goes into an exam.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

Contents

Section -- / 05

    • 01What the Estado Novo was: institutions, dates and the words for them●
    • 02A PIDE e a censura●
    • 03O impacto da ditadura na sociedade da época●
    • 04A ditadura em declínio: finais dos anos 60, princípios dos anos 70●
    • 05Writing about contested history in Portuguese: tenses, attribution, naming●

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A ditadura de Salazar: a PIDE, a censura e o declínio do regime

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Pearson Edexcel

  • Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Portuguese (9PG0) specification

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