Notes · Physical EducationUK · A-Levels

Preparation and Training Methods

This chapter turns the principles of training into a programme. It covers the principles that make training effective (specificity, progressive overload, reversibility, tedium and FITT), the periodisation of a training year, the aerobic methods and the calculation of training zones, the strength and power methods, and the ways to develop flexibility - always justifying the choice of method for a named performer and calculating the target intensities.

5 sections~17 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Foundation 1 · Standard 3 · Advanced 1

T·0333 / 17

Exam profile

AO1 · Describe the principles of training, periodisation and the training methodsAO2 · Apply the principles, zones and methods to a named performer's programme and calculate training zonesAO3 · Analyse and evaluate the suitability of methods for a given fitness aim and performer

Operators:describeexplainapplycalculatejustifyevaluate

basic level

AS-Level requires the principles of training (including FITT), the main training methods and the calculation of maximum heart rate and training zones.

higher level

The full A-Level requires periodisation, the Karvonen (heart-rate reserve) method and the justified selection and evaluation of methods for a named performer.

Depth

Text

Contents · 5 sections

Preparation and Training Methods

Principles of training and FITT#

FoundationAQA 7582 3.2.2.2DfE GCE PE - principles of training

The FITT principle of overload

Fig. 1Progressive overload is applied by manipulating Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type - the FITT variables.

For training to improve fitness it must obey a set of principles. Specificity is the principle that training must be relevant to the activity, energy systems, muscle groups and fitness components required - a sprinter trains explosive speed and the ATP-PC system, an endurance runner the aerobic system - so that the adaptations match the demands of the sport. Training the wrong system or movement pattern wastes effort and can even be counter-productive.

Progressive overload is the principle that the training load must be gradually increased over time so that the body is continually challenged and continues to adapt; if the load never rises, the body adapts and progress stalls, but if it rises too fast, injury and over-training result - so the increase must be progressive. Overload is applied by manipulating the FITT variables: Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), Time (how long) and Type (the method). Increasing any of these raises the load.

Reversibility is the principle that adaptations are lost if training stops or is reduced - 'use it or lose it'. Fitness declines during injury, illness or the off-season, and it is lost faster than it is gained, which is why performers maintain a base of training year-round and why a long lay-off requires careful, progressive rebuilding. Tedium (the need for variety) recognises that monotonous training reduces motivation and adherence, so varying the methods keeps a performer engaged and training consistently.

These principles are usually applied together and are the framework for designing any programme. A useful mnemonic is FITT for the variables of overload and SPORT (Specificity, Progression, Overload, Reversibility, Tedium) - or the extended SPORV - for the principles. The examiner rewards the application of these principles to a named performer: choosing methods specific to their sport, planning progressive increases in the FITT variables, guarding against reversibility with year-round maintenance, and building in variety to sustain motivation.

Worked example

Applying FITT to a novice runner

A recreational runner currently jogs 20 minutes twice a week. Suggest how to apply progressive overload over the next month using the FITT variables, without over-loading them.

Frequency
Add a third session per week, building the habit before making sessions harder.
Time
Increase the duration of the runs gradually, for example by a few minutes each week, so the aerobic system is progressively challenged.
Intensity
Once the volume is established, introduce some faster segments to raise intensity - but change only one or two variables at a time to avoid injury.
Type
Vary the sessions (routes, fartlek) to reduce tedium and maintain motivation.

Result: Progressive overload is applied by gradually raising frequency, then time, then intensity - one or two variables at a time - while varying the type to avoid tedium and injury.

Typical mistakes

Confusing progressive overload (a gradual, planned increase) with simply training as hard as possible, which risks injury and over-training.
Treating specificity as meaning only the muscle groups - it also covers the energy systems, fitness components and movement patterns of the sport.

Active revision

Explain how a games player returning from a long injury should apply the principles of reversibility and progressive overload when rebuilding fitness.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Periodisation, tapering and peaking#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.2.2DfE GCE PE - periodisation

Periodisation of a training year

Fig. 2The macrocycle is divided into preparation, competition and transition phases, each made up of mesocycles and microcycles, with a taper before the target competition.

Periodisation is the organised division of a training year into blocks so that a performer arrives at their most important competition in peak condition. The training year is divided into three nested cycles: the macrocycle is the long-term plan, often a whole year or season built around a major goal; the mesocycle is a block of several weeks with a specific focus (for example a strength or a speed phase); and the microcycle is the detailed short-term plan, usually a week of individual sessions. Nesting the cycles lets a coach plan backwards from the target competition.

The training year is usually structured into phases. The preparation (pre-season) phase builds a base: first general conditioning, then more sport-specific fitness, gradually raising the load. The competition (in-season) phase maintains fitness while emphasising skill, tactics and competition, with reduced training volume so the performer is fresh to compete. The transition (off-season) phase is active recovery and rest that prevents burnout and allows injuries to heal, while doing enough to limit reversibility.

Tapering is the deliberate reduction of training volume (and sometimes intensity) in the days or weeks immediately before a major competition. It allows the body to recover fully from the fatigue of hard training, to top up energy stores and to repair tissue, so that the fitness built during training is expressed without residual tiredness. Done well, a taper produces 'supercompensation' and a performance higher than could be achieved while training heavily.

Peaking is the aim of the whole process: to bring the performer to their highest level of readiness at exactly the right moment - the day of the target competition. Because fitness cannot be held at its absolute peak indefinitely (and because of reversibility and the risk of over-training), a performer can only truly peak a limited number of times a year, so periodisation is planned around the most important events. The examiner rewards the application of these ideas to a named athlete: identifying the target competition, working backwards through the phases, and justifying the taper and the timing of the peak. The main evaluative point is that periodisation manages the tension between building fitness (which requires hard training and creates fatigue) and expressing it (which requires freshness).

Worked example

Planning backwards from a target

A swimmer's key competition is the national championships in July. Outline how the macrocycle would be periodised to peak for it.

Preparation phase
From the start of the season, build a general aerobic and strength base, then progress to swim-specific speed and race-pace work, raising the load progressively.
Competition phase
Through the competitive season maintain fitness while sharpening technique, starts, turns and race tactics, with reduced volume to stay fresh for meets.
Taper
In the two to three weeks before July, cut training volume sharply while keeping some intensity, allowing recovery and supercompensation so the swimmer is rested and fast.
Transition
After the championships, take an active-recovery off-season to rest and prevent burnout before the next macrocycle.

Result: The year is planned backwards from July: build in preparation, maintain and sharpen in competition, taper to peak, then recover in transition.

Typical mistakes

Confusing the three cycles - the macrocycle is the long-term plan, the mesocycle a block of weeks, the microcycle a week of sessions.
Thinking an athlete can peak all year - peaking is possible only a few times a year and must be timed to the key events.

Active revision

Explain how a sprinter aiming to peak for a national championships in August would periodise the year, including the use of a taper.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Aerobic training and training zones#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.2.2DfE GCE PE - methods of training and training zones

Aerobic and anaerobic training zones

Fig. 3Target training zones as a percentage of maximum heart rate: the aerobic zone is roughly 60-80%, with the anaerobic zone above about 80%. Values are illustrative for a 20-year-old (HRmax 200).

To develop aerobic fitness a performer must train at the right intensity, which is monitored using the heart rate. The maximum heart rate is estimated with the simple formula

HR_{max} = 220 - \text{age}

(in years). Target training zones are then set as percentages of maximum heart rate: the aerobic training zone is roughly 60-80% of maximum heart rate, within which the body improves its aerobic capacity, while working above about 80% shifts training towards the anaerobic threshold and the anaerobic zone.

A more individual method is the Karvonen (heart-rate reserve) formula, which accounts for a performer's resting heart rate. The heart-rate reserve is the difference between maximum and resting heart rate, and the target heart rate is the resting heart rate plus a chosen percentage of the reserve:

HR_{target} = HR_{rest} + \%\,(HR_{max} - HR_{rest})

. Because a fitter performer has a lower resting heart rate, the Karvonen method gives a target tailored to the individual rather than a one-size-fits-all percentage of maximum.

Continuous training develops aerobic fitness through prolonged, steady, sub-maximal exercise (a long run, ride or swim) held within the aerobic zone; it is simple and effective for endurance but can be time-consuming and monotonous. Fartlek ('speed play') training varies the pace and terrain within a continuous session, mixing periods of harder and easier effort, so it develops both aerobic and anaerobic fitness and mimics the changing demands of games - useful for footballers and rugby players.

Interval training alternates periods of hard work with periods of recovery, and by manipulating the work intensity, the work duration, the number of repetitions and the length of the recovery it can be tuned to develop the aerobic or the anaerobic systems. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) uses short bursts of very hard work with brief recoveries and is an efficient way to improve fitness in less time, though it is demanding and unsuitable for beginners. Choosing a method, and calculating and monitoring the correct training zone, is the applied skill this section rewards.

HR_{max} = 220 - \text{age}

Maximum heart rate (estimate)

An age-based estimate of maximum heart rate in beats per minute.

HR_{target} = HR_{rest} + \%\,(HR_{max} - HR_{rest})

Karvonen (heart-rate reserve)

The target heart rate is the resting heart rate plus a percentage of the heart-rate reserve (max minus rest).

Worked example

Karvonen target zone

A 30-year-old athlete has a resting heart rate of 50 bpm. Using the Karvonen method, calculate the target heart-rate range for training at 70-85% of heart-rate reserve.

Maximum heart rate
HRmax = 220 - age.
$HR_{max} = 220 - 30 = 190\ \text{bpm}$
Heart-rate reserve
HRR = HRmax - HRrest = 190 - 50 = 140 bpm.
Lower target (70%)
HRtarget = 50 + 0.70 x 140.
$HR_{70\%} = 50 + 0.70 \times 140 = 148\ \text{bpm}$
Upper target (85%)
HRtarget = 50 + 0.85 x 140.
$HR_{85\%} = 50 + 0.85 \times 140 = 169\ \text{bpm}$

Result: The athlete should train between about 148 and 169 bpm - the 70-85% heart-rate-reserve zone by the Karvonen method.

Typical mistakes

Forgetting to subtract the age from 220 (using 220 as the maximum heart rate).
Confusing the percentage-of-maximum method with the Karvonen method, which adds the percentage of the reserve to the resting heart rate.

Active revision

A 25-year-old with a resting heart rate of 55 bpm wants to train in the aerobic zone. Calculate the target heart-rate range for 60-80% of heart-rate reserve using the Karvonen method.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Strength and power training methods#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.2.2DfE GCE PE - strength and power training

Loading for different strength goals

Fig. 4The percentage of one repetition maximum and the number of repetitions determine whether training develops maximum strength, power or muscular endurance. Values are illustrative.

Strength and power are developed by making the muscles work against a resistance, and the load is prescribed using the repetition maximum. One repetition maximum (1RM) is the greatest load that can be lifted once; a percentage of 1RM, together with the number of sets and repetitions and the recovery between them, is manipulated to target the specific goal. Broadly, heavy loads (a high percentage of 1RM) for few repetitions develop maximum strength; moderate loads for more repetitions develop muscular endurance; and moving lighter-to-moderate loads quickly develops power.

Weight (resistance) training uses free weights or machines and is highly adaptable through the choice of load, repetitions and recovery, allowing it to be made specific to almost any strength goal and muscle group. Its precision and safety (especially with machines) make it the staple of strength development, though it requires equipment and correct technique to avoid injury.

Plyometric training develops explosive power by exploiting the stretch-shortening cycle: a rapid eccentric (lengthening) contraction immediately followed by a powerful concentric (shortening) contraction, as in bounding, depth jumps and hopping. The pre-stretch stores elastic energy and triggers a stronger reflex contraction, so plyometrics are ideal for jumpers, sprinters and throwers - but they are high-impact and demanding, so they need a strength base and are unsuitable for beginners or the injured.

Circuit training arranges a series of stations performed in sequence, and by choosing the exercises and the work-to-rest ratio it can develop strength, muscular endurance, aerobic fitness or a mixture, for a whole squad at once with minimal equipment. Its versatility and efficiency make it popular, though it is less precise for developing maximal strength than dedicated weight training. The applied skill is to match the method and its loading to the fitness component required by the sport - maximal strength for a prop forward, explosive power for a high jumper, muscular endurance for a rower - and to justify the choice.

Worked example

Prescribing loading from 1RM

A rugby prop can back-squat a 1RM of 180 kg and wants to develop maximum strength. Suggest a suitable working load and repetition scheme, and explain the reasoning.

Choose the intensity
Maximum strength requires heavy loads at roughly 85-95% of 1RM for a low number of repetitions with full recovery.
Calculate the load
About 90% of 1RM is 0.90 x 180 = 162 kg.
Set the scheme
Perform low repetitions (about 3-5) for several sets with long recoveries, so the neuromuscular system recruits maximal motor units without fatiguing into an endurance stimulus.

Result: Working at about 162 kg (90% of 1RM) for sets of 3-5 repetitions with full recovery develops maximum strength - heavy load, few repetitions, long rest.

Typical mistakes

Prescribing high repetitions with light loads for maximum strength - maximum strength needs heavy loads for few repetitions.
Recommending plyometrics to a beginner - they are high-impact and require an existing strength base.

Active revision

A volleyball player wants to jump higher to spike and block. Recommend and justify a training method and an appropriate loading, and explain one safety consideration.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Flexibility training#

AdvancedAQA 7582 3.2.2.2DfE GCE PE - flexibility training

Methods of developing flexibility

Fig. 5Flexibility can be developed by static (active or passive), ballistic, dynamic or PNF stretching; PNF exploits autogenic inhibition and is highly effective.

Flexibility is the range of movement at a joint, and it is developed by stretching a muscle beyond its normal length so that, over time, the range increases. Good flexibility improves performance directly in sports that demand large ranges (gymnastics, hurdling, swimming), allows a fuller, more efficient technique in most activities, and may reduce the risk of some injuries. The methods differ in how the stretch is applied and how far they push the range.

Static stretching holds a muscle in a lengthened position at, or just beyond, the point of mild tension, and comes in two forms. Active static stretching is performed by the performer's own muscular effort (holding a raised leg using the hip flexors); passive static stretching uses an external force - a partner, gravity or a wall - to hold the stretch, allowing a greater range. Static stretching is safe and effective for developing flexibility and is widely used in cool-downs.

Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a swinging or bouncing movement to force a joint through its full range (a gymnast's leg swings). It can be effective for performers who need flexibility during fast, dynamic actions, but it is risky because the rapid stretch can trigger the stretch reflex and over-stretch the tissue, so it is suitable only for well-conditioned, experienced performers and should not be used by beginners. Dynamic stretching, by contrast, takes a joint through a controlled, sport-specific range of movement (leg swings and lunges in a warm-up) and is a safer way to prepare for dynamic activity.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) is regarded as one of the most effective methods for developing flexibility. The muscle is stretched, then isometrically contracted against resistance for several seconds, then relaxed and stretched further. As explained in the neuromuscular system, the isometric contraction stimulates the Golgi tendon organs, which trigger autogenic inhibition - the muscle relaxes and the stretch reflex is temporarily overridden - so a greater range is achieved on the subsequent stretch. PNF usually needs a partner and must be done carefully, but its physiological basis makes it highly effective. The evaluative skill is to match the method to the performer: static and dynamic stretching for most and for warm-ups and cool-downs, PNF for serious flexibility gains, and ballistic stretching reserved for well-conditioned specialists.

Worked example

Justifying PNF for a hurdler

A hurdler needs greater hip flexibility to clear the barriers efficiently. Recommend PNF and explain why it develops flexibility so effectively.

Apply the initial stretch
With a partner, the hip flexors/hamstrings are taken to the limit of the range, where the stretch reflex would normally resist further movement.
Isometric contraction
The athlete contracts the stretched muscle isometrically against the partner's resistance for several seconds, generating high tendon tension.
Autogenic inhibition
The Golgi tendon organs detect the tension and trigger autogenic inhibition, relaxing the muscle and overriding the stretch reflex.
Greater range
On relaxing, the muscle can be stretched further, so the range of movement improves - repeated over time this raises hip flexibility for hurdling.

Result: PNF is effective because the isometric contraction triggers autogenic inhibition, allowing a greater stretch and a larger range of movement at the hip.

Typical mistakes

Recommending ballistic stretching to a beginner - the bouncing action risks triggering the stretch reflex and injury.
Describing PNF as a simple hold - it is the stretch, isometric contraction and further stretch sequence that overrides the stretch reflex.

Active revision

A gymnast wants to improve the range of the splits. Recommend and justify a flexibility method, and explain the physiological reason it is effective.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

References & sources

Sources

Department for Education

GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education

AQA

AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification

Preparation and Training Methods

5 sections~17 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Foundation 1 · Standard 3 · Advanced 1

Preparation and Training Methods

Key points

Applying FITT to a novice runner

Key points

Planning backwards from a target

Key points

Karvonen target zone

Key points

Prescribing loading from 1RM

Key points

Justifying PNF for a hurdler

Sources

Preparation and Training Methods

Key points

Applying FITT to a novice runner

Key points

Planning backwards from a target

Key points

Karvonen target zone

Key points

Prescribing loading from 1RM

Key points

Justifying PNF for a hurdler

Sources