Notes · Physical EducationUK · A-Levels

Applied Anatomy and Physiology

This chapter follows a sporting action from the skeleton that levers it, through the muscles that drive it, to the cardiovascular and respiratory systems that deliver the oxygen and the energy systems that resynthesise ATP. It builds each system in turn - joints and movement analysis, the sliding-filament mechanism, cardiac output, gas exchange, motor-unit recruitment and the energy continuum - and always links the physiology to a named sporting example and to how the systems respond and adapt to training.

6 sections~23 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Foundation 1 · Standard 3 · Advanced 2

T·0111 / 17

Exam profile

AO1 · Describe the structure and function of the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular, respiratory and neuromuscular systems and the three energy systemsAO2 · Apply the responses of the systems to named sporting movements and events, including cardiac output and energy-system calculationsAO3 · Analyse and evaluate how the systems interact to support, and to limit, sporting performance

Operators:describeexplainapplycalculateanalyseevaluate

basic level

AS-Level requires the joints and movement analysis, muscle contraction and fibre types, the cardiac cycle and cardiac output, the mechanics of breathing and gas exchange, and the neuromuscular and energy systems at a descriptive level.

higher level

The full A-Level demands the quantitative treatment - cardiac output, the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve and Bohr shift, motor-unit summation and the energy continuum with EPOC - and the evaluation of how the systems interact and adapt to training.

Depth

Text

Contents · 6 sections

Applied Anatomy and Physiology

The skeletal system, joints and movement analysis#

FoundationAQA 7582 3.1.1.1DfE GCE PE - musculo-skeletal system and analysis of movement

Structure of a synovial joint (the knee)

Fig. 1A synovial joint: the articulating bones are capped with articular cartilage and enclosed by a capsule whose synovial membrane secretes lubricating synovial fluid; ligaments join bone to bone and stabilise the joint.

The skeleton provides the framework on which movement is built: it supports and shapes the body, protects vital organs, stores minerals and produces blood cells, and - the part that matters most for movement analysis - it provides a system of bony levers that muscles pull on to produce motion. Where two or more bones meet is a joint, and the freely movable joints used in sport are synovial joints. Every synovial joint shares the same structures: articular (hyaline) cartilage covering the bone ends to reduce friction and absorb shock, a joint capsule enclosing it, a synovial membrane secreting synovial fluid to lubricate and nourish the joint, ligaments (bone to bone) holding the bones together and stabilising the joint, and tendons (muscle to bone) transmitting the muscular force.

The synovial joints are classified by the movement they allow. A hinge joint (elbow, knee, ankle) allows movement in one plane only - flexion and extension - while a ball-and-socket joint (shoulder, hip) allows movement in three planes: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and rotation, giving the greatest range of movement. Knowing the joint type tells you immediately which movements are possible, which is the first step of any movement analysis.

Movement analysis names the joint, the articulating bones, the movement produced, and the agonist and antagonist muscles that produce it. The precise vocabulary is essential: flexion decreases the angle at a joint and extension increases it; abduction moves a limb away from the midline and adduction back towards it; rotation turns a bone about its long axis; and at the ankle plantar-flexion points the toes down while dorsiflexion pulls them up. For example, in the upward phase of a biceps curl the elbow flexes: the articulating bones are the humerus, radius and ulna, the agonist is the biceps brachii and the antagonist is the triceps brachii.

Muscles work in antagonistic pairs about a joint. The agonist (prime mover) contracts to produce the movement; the antagonist relaxes and lengthens to allow it; a fixator stabilises the origin so the force is efficiently transmitted; and a synergist assists and prevents unwanted movement. Because a muscle can only pull, not push, the reverse movement needs the opposite muscle: the biceps flexes the elbow, the triceps extends it. Correctly identifying the agonist and antagonist for a named phase of a sporting action - the upward drive of a jump, the follow-through of a throw - is the most commonly examined skill in this section.

Worked example

Movement analysis of the elbow in a press-up

During the upward phase of a press-up the arms straighten. Give a full movement analysis at the elbow joint.

Joint and bones
The elbow is a hinge joint; the articulating bones are the humerus, radius and ulna.
Movement
The arm straightens, so the joint angle increases - this is extension.
Agonist and antagonist
Extension of the elbow is produced by the triceps brachii (agonist) contracting concentrically, while the biceps brachii (antagonist) relaxes and lengthens.

Result: Elbow (hinge; humerus, radius, ulna), extension, agonist triceps brachii, antagonist biceps brachii.

Typical mistakes

Confusing the agonist and antagonist - the agonist is the muscle that contracts to cause the named movement, not simply the largest muscle.
Mixing up ligaments (bone to bone, stabilise the joint) and tendons (muscle to bone, transmit force).

Active revision

Analyse the movement at the knee and hip during the upward (concentric) phase of a squat jump: name the joint type, the articulating bones and the agonist muscle at each joint.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

The muscular system and the sliding-filament mechanism#

StandardAQA 7582 3.1.1.1DfE GCE PE - the muscular system and muscle contraction

The sliding-filament mechanism within a sarcomere

Fig. 2Myosin cross-bridges attach to the actin filaments and their power stroke pulls the actin in towards the centre; the filaments slide over one another so the sarcomere (Z-line to Z-line) shortens.

Skeletal muscle is made of bundles of muscle fibres, each fibre containing many myofibrils, and each myofibril a chain of repeating contractile units called sarcomeres. Within the sarcomere lie two overlapping protein filaments: thick filaments of myosin and thin filaments of actin, anchored at each end to a Z-line. It is the interaction of these two filaments that produces every muscular contraction, from the finest adjustment of a dart throw to the maximal drive of a rugby scrum.

The sliding-filament theory explains contraction. When a muscle is stimulated, the myosin heads form cross-bridges with binding sites on the actin filament, then flex in a 'power stroke' that pulls the actin filaments in towards the centre of the sarcomere, past the myosin. The cross-bridge then detaches, using energy from ATP, re-cocks and reattaches further along, repeating the cycle many times. The filaments themselves do not shorten - they slide over one another - so the sarcomere, and therefore the whole muscle, shortens. This is why a supply of ATP and calcium ions is essential for contraction, and why the process stops when the stimulus and the ATP run out.

Contractions are classified by what happens to the muscle length. In an isotonic contraction the muscle changes length under tension: concentric (the muscle shortens as it develops force, such as the biceps in the upward phase of a curl) or eccentric (the muscle lengthens under tension to control a movement, such as the quadriceps absorbing landing forces or the biceps in the lowering phase of a curl). In an isometric contraction the muscle develops force without changing length, holding a position - a gymnast's crucifix hold or a rugby maul. Eccentric contractions generate the greatest force but also cause most of the muscle soreness after unaccustomed exercise.

Muscle fibres are not all the same, and the mix a performer has strongly influences the events they suit. Type I (slow oxidative) fibres contract slowly, resist fatigue and rely on aerobic energy production - the endurance fibres of a marathon runner. Type IIx (fast glycolytic) fibres contract rapidly and powerfully but fatigue quickly, relying on anaerobic energy - the fibres of a sprinter or thrower. Type IIa (fast oxidative glycolytic) fibres are intermediate: fast-contracting but more fatigue-resistant than IIx, and trainable towards greater endurance, which is why middle-distance athletes and games players rely on them. The recruitment of the appropriate fibre types, and their adaptation to training, underpins performance across the whole range of sporting events.

Worked example

Classifying the contractions in a squat

In a barbell back squat, identify the type of contraction in the quadriceps during (a) the downward phase and (b) the upward phase, and explain your answer.

Downward phase
The knee flexes and the quadriceps lengthen while still developing tension to control the descent - this is an eccentric (isotonic) contraction.
Upward phase
The knee extends and the quadriceps shorten while developing force to drive the body up - this is a concentric (isotonic) contraction.
Link to the mechanism
In both phases myosin cross-bridges cycle on actin using ATP; the difference is whether the net movement shortens (concentric) or lengthens (eccentric) the muscle under tension.

Result: Downward phase: eccentric; upward phase: concentric - both isotonic contractions of the quadriceps.

Typical mistakes

Saying the actin and myosin filaments themselves shorten - they slide over one another; it is the sarcomere that shortens.
Describing the lowering phase of a lift as a concentric contraction - lowering under control is eccentric (the muscle lengthens under tension).

Active revision

Explain, in terms of fibre types and the sliding-filament mechanism, why a 100 m sprinter and a marathon runner have very different muscle characteristics.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

The cardiovascular system and cardiac output#

StandardAQA 7582 3.1.1.2DfE GCE PE - the cardiovascular system

The cardiac conduction system

Fig. 3The myogenic impulse passes from the sino-atrial node across the atria to the atrio-ventricular node, is delayed, then travels down the bundle of His and along the Purkinje fibres to contract the ventricles.

The heart is a double pump whose beat is initiated and coordinated by its own conduction system - it is myogenic, generating its own impulse. The sino-atrial node (SAN), the pacemaker in the right atrium, fires an electrical impulse that spreads across the atria and causes them to contract (atrial systole). The impulse reaches the atrio-ventricular node (AVN), which delays it briefly so the atria empty before the ventricles contract, then passes down the bundle of His and along the Purkinje fibres, spreading through the ventricle walls so they contract from the bottom up (ventricular systole), forcing blood out to the lungs and body. Understanding this sequence explains how heart rate can be raised so precisely during exercise.

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of one heartbeat: diastole (relaxation and filling) followed by systole (contraction and ejection), controlled by pressure changes that open and close the valves. Two variables describe the pump's output. Heart rate (HR) is the number of beats per minute; stroke volume (SV) is the volume of blood ejected by the left ventricle per beat. Their product is cardiac output, the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.

Cardiac output is given by

Q = HR \times SV

. At rest a typical HR is about 70 beats per minute and SV about 70 ml, giving

Q \approx 4.9

litres per minute. During maximal exercise HR can reach around 200 beats per minute and SV can rise to about 120 ml or more, so cardiac output can climb to over 20 litres per minute - a four- to five-fold increase that delivers far more oxygen to the working muscles. Stroke volume rises partly through Starling's law: greater venous return stretches the ventricle walls, so they contract more forcefully and eject a greater volume.

During exercise the extra output must be directed where it is needed. The vascular shunt mechanism redistributes blood flow: vasodilation of the arterioles supplying the working muscles and vasoconstriction of those supplying the gut and non-essential organs, together with the action of pre-capillary sphincters, can raise the share of blood going to muscle from around 15-20% at rest to over 80% during hard exercise. Venous return - the blood coming back to the heart - is maintained against gravity by the skeletal-muscle pump, the respiratory pump, valves in the veins and smooth-muscle tone, and because cardiac output depends on venous return (Starling's law), keeping it high with an active cool-down prevents blood pooling and dizziness after exercise. A key trained adaptation is cardiac hypertrophy: the endurance athlete's larger, stronger left ventricle gives a bigger stroke volume, so the same resting cardiac output is achieved at a lower heart rate (bradycardia).

Q = HR \times SV

Cardiac output

Cardiac output Q (litres per minute) equals heart rate HR (beats per minute) multiplied by stroke volume SV (litres per beat).

Heart-rate response to sub-maximal exercise

Fig. 4Heart rate shows an anticipatory rise before exercise, a rapid rise to a steady state during sub-maximal work, and a two-phase fall in recovery. Values are illustrative.

Worked example

Cardiac output at rest and in exercise

A games player has a resting heart rate of 65 bpm and a stroke volume of 72 ml. During a match these rise to 180 bpm and 118 ml. Calculate the cardiac output at rest and during the match, and state the factor by which it increases.

Resting cardiac output
Convert stroke volume to litres: 72 ml = 0.072 L. Then Q = HR x SV.
$Q_{\text{rest}} = 65 \times 0.072 = 4.68\ \text{L min}^{-1}$
Exercising cardiac output
118 ml = 0.118 L, so Q = 180 x 0.118.
$Q_{\text{ex}} = 180 \times 0.118 = 21.24\ \text{L min}^{-1}$
Factor of increase
Divide the exercising value by the resting value: 21.24 / 4.68 = 4.5.

Result: Cardiac output rises from about 4.7 L min-1 at rest to about 21.2 L min-1, an increase of roughly 4.5 times, achieved by raising both heart rate and stroke volume.

Typical mistakes

Confusing stroke volume (per beat) with cardiac output (per minute) - cardiac output is their product.
Stating that the extra cardiac output during exercise goes everywhere equally - the vascular shunt redirects it to the working muscles.

Active revision

A cyclist has a resting heart rate of 60 bpm and a stroke volume of 80 ml. During a race the heart rate rises to 185 bpm and stroke volume to 125 ml. Calculate the resting and exercising cardiac output and comment on the change.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

The respiratory system and gas exchange#

StandardAQA 7582 3.1.1.2DfE GCE PE - the respiratory system

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

Fig. 5The S-shaped curve of haemoglobin saturation against the partial pressure of oxygen: nearly full saturation in the lungs, steep unloading in the tissues. The Bohr shift moves the curve to the right during exercise, releasing more oxygen to the muscle.

Breathing (pulmonary ventilation) moves air in and out of the lungs by changing the pressure inside the thorax. At inspiration the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the external intercostal muscles raise the ribs, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and so lowering the pressure below atmospheric, drawing air in. At rest, expiration is passive - the muscles relax and the elastic lungs recoil. During exercise both phases become active and forced: the sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor assist a deeper inspiration, and the internal intercostals and abdominals drive a forceful expiration, so more air is moved per breath and per minute.

The amount of air moved is described by lung volumes. Tidal volume is the air breathed in or out per breath (about 0.5 litres at rest); breathing frequency is the number of breaths per minute; and their product is minute ventilation,

VE = \text{tidal volume} \times \text{frequency}

. During exercise both tidal volume and frequency rise, so minute ventilation can increase from around 6 litres per minute at rest to over 100 litres per minute, matching the greater demand for oxygen and the greater need to remove carbon dioxide.

Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the huge, thin, moist surface of the alveoli, driven by partial-pressure gradients. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli (high partial pressure of oxygen) into the blood (low), while carbon dioxide diffuses the other way. The same principle operates at the muscle: oxygen diffuses from the blood into the exercising muscle where its partial pressure is low, and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Exercise steepens these gradients - the muscle uses oxygen faster and produces more carbon dioxide - so the rate of gas exchange rises.

The transport and unloading of oxygen is described by the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve, which plots the percentage saturation of haemoglobin against the partial pressure of oxygen. Its characteristic S-shape means haemoglobin is almost fully saturated in the lungs (high partial pressure) but readily gives up its oxygen in the tissues (low partial pressure). During exercise the curve shifts to the right - the Bohr shift - because the muscle is warmer, more acidic (more carbon dioxide and lactate lower the pH) and metabolically active; this means that for any given partial pressure haemoglobin releases more oxygen to the working muscle, exactly when it is most needed. This is a clear example of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems adapting together to support performance.

VE = TV \times f

Minute ventilation

Minute ventilation VE equals tidal volume TV multiplied by breathing frequency f.

Worked example

Calculating minute ventilation

At rest a swimmer breathes 12 times a minute with a tidal volume of 0.5 litres. During a hard swim these rise to 45 breaths a minute and a tidal volume of 2.4 litres. Calculate the resting and exercising minute ventilation.

Resting minute ventilation
VE = tidal volume x frequency.
$VE_{\text{rest}} = 0.5 \times 12 = 6\ \text{L min}^{-1}$
Exercising minute ventilation
Use the exercising values.
$VE_{\text{ex}} = 2.4 \times 45 = 108\ \text{L min}^{-1}$
Interpret
Minute ventilation increases eighteen-fold, achieved by raising both tidal volume and breathing frequency to meet the oxygen demand.

Result: Minute ventilation rises from 6 L min-1 at rest to 108 L min-1 during exercise, an eighteen-fold increase.

Typical mistakes

Saying expiration at rest is active - it is passive (elastic recoil); only forced expiration during exercise is active.
Reading the Bohr shift as reducing oxygen delivery - a right shift increases the unloading of oxygen at the muscle.

Active revision

Explain how the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve and the Bohr shift ensure that a footballer's working muscles receive more oxygen during a sprint.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

The neuromuscular system#

AdvancedAQA 7582 3.1.1.1DfE GCE PE - the neuromuscular system

A motor unit and graded force

Fig. 6A motor neurone stimulates all the fibres of its motor unit (all-or-none). Force is graded by recruiting more units (spatial summation) and firing them more frequently (wave summation).

Muscles are driven by motor neurones. A motor unit is a single motor neurone together with all the muscle fibres it stimulates; when the neurone fires, every fibre in that unit contracts. All the fibres in a given motor unit are of the same type, so the nervous system controls the character of a contraction by choosing which units to recruit. Fine, precise movements (an archer's release, the fingers of a spin bowler) use small motor units with few fibres each; powerful movements (a leg drive, a throw) use large motor units with many fibres.

The all-or-none law states that a motor unit either contracts fully or not at all: once the stimulus reaches the threshold, every fibre in the unit contracts maximally; a stronger stimulus does not make an individual unit contract harder. Force is therefore graded not by contracting units harder but by recruiting more of them (spatial summation) and by stimulating them more frequently (wave summation), where impulses arrive so rapidly that individual twitches merge into a stronger, sustained contraction (tetanus). Maximal strength requires recruiting as many motor units as possible, as forcefully and frequently as possible.

The body monitors its own movement through proprioceptors - sensory receptors that feed information back to the central nervous system. Muscle spindles detect the length and rate of stretch of a muscle and trigger the stretch reflex, a protective contraction that resists over-stretching; Golgi tendon organs detect the tension in the tendon and can trigger relaxation of the muscle to protect it from excessive force. This continuous feedback lets a performer control and refine movement without conscious thought, and it is central to balance and coordination.

Understanding the proprioceptors explains an advanced flexibility method: proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). In PNF stretching the muscle is stretched, then isometrically contracted against resistance for a few seconds, then relaxed and stretched further. The isometric contraction stimulates the Golgi tendon organs, which trigger 'autogenic inhibition' - the muscle relaxes - so on the following stretch a greater range is achieved and the stretch reflex is temporarily overridden. PNF is one of the most effective ways to develop flexibility, and its rationale sits directly on the neuromuscular physiology of this section, linking anatomy to the training methods studied later.

Worked example

Explaining PNF stretching

A coach uses a PNF hamstring stretch on an athlete. Explain, in terms of the proprioceptors, why the athlete achieves a greater range of movement after the isometric contraction.

Initial stretch
The hamstring is stretched towards the limit of its range; the muscle spindles would normally trigger a stretch reflex to resist further stretch.
Isometric contraction
The athlete contracts the hamstring isometrically against resistance for about 6-10 seconds, generating high tension in the tendon.
Autogenic inhibition
The Golgi tendon organs detect this tension and trigger autogenic inhibition, causing the hamstring to relax and overriding the stretch reflex.
Greater range
On the next stretch the relaxed muscle can be taken further, so a greater range of movement is achieved.

Result: The isometric contraction stimulates the Golgi tendon organs, causing autogenic inhibition (relaxation), so the following stretch reaches a greater range - the basis of PNF.

Typical mistakes

Thinking a bigger stimulus makes one motor unit contract more strongly - the all-or-none law means force is increased by recruiting more units, not by contracting a unit harder.
Confusing the two proprioceptors - muscle spindles detect stretch/length; Golgi tendon organs detect tension in the tendon.

Active revision

Explain, using the all-or-none law and motor-unit recruitment, how a weightlifter is able to lift progressively heavier loads.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Energy systems and the energy continuum#

AdvancedAQA 7582 3.2.1DfE GCE PE - energy systems

Energy-system contribution against exercise duration

Fig. 7The predominant energy system shifts with duration: ATP-PC in the first seconds, the glycolytic system over the next couple of minutes, the aerobic system thereafter. Percentages are illustrative and each column totals 100%.

Every muscular contraction is powered by adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which releases energy when its terminal phosphate bond is broken (ATP becomes ADP + P). The body stores only a tiny amount of ATP - enough for a second or two of maximal work - so it must be continuously resynthesised. Three energy systems rebuild ATP, and which one predominates depends on the intensity and duration of the activity.

The ATP-PC (phosphocreatine, alactic) system resynthesises ATP by breaking down stored phosphocreatine, an anaerobic reaction that is very rapid but limited: it powers about 8-10 seconds of maximal effort - a short sprint, a jump, a throw - before the phosphocreatine store is depleted. It produces no fatiguing by-products, so it recovers quickly. The anaerobic glycolytic (lactic) system resynthesises ATP by the partial breakdown of glucose/glycogen without oxygen; it takes over as the dominant system from roughly 10 seconds to about 2-3 minutes of high-intensity work (a 400 m run, repeated sprints), but its by-product, lactic acid (lactate and hydrogen ions), accumulates and causes the burning fatigue that limits performance.

The aerobic system resynthesises ATP by the complete breakdown of glucose and fats in the presence of oxygen, through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. It yields a great deal of ATP (about 36-38 molecules per glucose, against 2 anaerobically) and its by-products are only carbon dioxide and water, so it can sustain low-to-moderate intensity work for hours - it dominates in endurance events such as a marathon or a long-distance cycle. Its limitation is speed: it cannot resynthesise ATP fast enough for high-intensity efforts.

In real sport the three systems do not switch on and off but blend along an energy continuum, with the predominant system set by the intensity and duration of the activity: the ATP-PC system dominates the first few seconds, the glycolytic system the next couple of minutes, and the aerobic system thereafter. A games player crosses the thresholds constantly, sprinting on the ATP-PC system, recovering aerobically, then sprinting again. After exercise, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) - the elevated oxygen uptake during recovery - repays the 'oxygen debt': the fast component restores the ATP and phosphocreatine stores and re-saturates myoglobin and haemoglobin, and the slow component removes lactate and supports the raised temperature, heart rate and breathing. Planning recovery around EPOC, and training each energy system specifically, is central to optimising performance.

Worked example

Predominant energy system across an event

A 800 m runner completes the race in about 1 minute 50 seconds. State the predominant energy system, justify your choice, and explain what happens during recovery.

Intensity and duration
The event lasts under two minutes at high intensity, which is too long for the ATP-PC system alone and too intense to be mainly aerobic.
Predominant system
The anaerobic glycolytic (lactic) system predominates, resynthesising ATP by anaerobic glycolysis; the ATP-PC system fuels the explosive start and the aerobic system contributes increasingly as the race goes on.
By-product
Lactic acid accumulates, causing fatigue - the reason the pace cannot be sustained much longer.
Recovery (EPOC)
In recovery the fast component of EPOC restores ATP and phosphocreatine and re-saturates myoglobin; the slow component removes the accumulated lactate and supports the raised heart rate, breathing and temperature.

Result: The 800 m is predominantly anaerobic glycolytic; recovery is driven by EPOC, first restoring the ATP-PC stores, then removing lactate.

Typical mistakes

Treating the systems as switching on one at a time - all three contribute at once, with one predominant depending on intensity and duration.
Saying the ATP-PC system produces lactic acid - it is alactic; lactic acid is the by-product of the anaerobic glycolytic system.

Active revision

Identify and justify the predominant energy system in (a) a shot-put, (b) a 400 m sprint and (c) a 10 km run, and explain how they blend for a games player.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

References & sources

Sources

Department for Education

GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education

AQA

AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification

Applied Anatomy and Physiology

6 sections~23 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Foundation 1 · Standard 3 · Advanced 2

Applied Anatomy and Physiology

Key points

Movement analysis of the elbow in a press-up

Key points

Classifying the contractions in a squat

Key points

Cardiac output at rest and in exercise

Key points

Calculating minute ventilation

Key points

Explaining PNF stretching

Key points

Predominant energy system across an event

Sources

Applied Anatomy and Physiology

Key points

Movement analysis of the elbow in a press-up

Key points

Classifying the contractions in a squat

Key points

Cardiac output at rest and in exercise

Key points

Calculating minute ventilation

Key points

Explaining PNF stretching

Key points

Predominant energy system across an event

Sources