EuraStudy
Notes/Greek (Modern)/Τέταρτο Θέμα I: Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά
Notes · Greek (Modern)UK · A-Levels

Τέταρτο Θέμα I: Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά

This topic carries the first sub-theme of Edexcel's fourth theme, Τέταρτο Θέμα: Νέες εξελίξεις στο πολιτικό και οικονομικό πεδίο, which the specification sets in the context of Greece only and describes as political culture past and present. The sub-theme is Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά, and its three aspects are οι αιτίες και οι επιπτώσεις της κρίσης, the causes and effects of the crisis; ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης, the role of the European Union; and κοινωνικές διαμάχες και αναταραχές, social conflict and unrest. The theme's second sub-theme, Η πολιτική σκηνή, and its research subject, Πρόσφυγες στην Ελλάδα, are carried by political-life-2. Everything in this sub-theme is politically contested inside Greece to this day, and the treatment here follows one rule throughout: the documented sequence and the institutional facts are stated flatly, every causal claim is attributed to whoever advances it, the main competing explanations are each set out at their strongest, and no statistic is invented. Where a magnitude matters it is given as a reported magnitude, hedged and attributed, rather than as a precise number recalled from memory.

5 sections·~35 min reading time·4 competencies·Level Advanced 5

T·0555 / 12
Exam profile
AO1 · Understand and respond in writing to spoken Greek about economic and political events, including news bulletins and interviewsAO2 · Understand and respond in writing to written Greek of economic, political and polemical registerAO3 · Manipulate Greek accurately, using the vocabulary of public finance, institutions and argumentAO4 · Show knowledge and understanding of, and respond critically to, the Greek economy and society since 2009
Operators:αναλύωαξιολογώεξηγώσυγκρίνωτεκμηριώνωαποδίδωσυζητώσυνοψίζω

basic level

At first-year standard the expectation is an accurate account of what happened and when, in correct Greek, with one clearly signalled opinion of your own.

higher level

The full A-Level expects each cause to be attributed to whoever advances it, the strongest version of at least two competing explanations to be presented, and the difference between a documented event and an interpretation of it to be visible in the writing itself.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 5 sections▾
  1. Τέταρτο Θέμα I: Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά
    • 01The dated sequence, 2009 to 2018, and why it must come first●
    • 02Οι αιτίες: five explanations, each at its strongest●
    • 03Οι επιπτώσεις: what the decade did, and how to write it without inventing numbers●
    • 04Ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης●
    • 05Κοινωνικές διαμάχες και αναταραχές●
§ 01

The dated sequence, 2009 to 2018, and why it must come first#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Τέταρτο Θέμα — Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετάLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Η οικονομία από το 2009: the dated spine

Ελληνική οικονομία 2009–2018Timeline from 2007 to 2020, 2009: Έλλειμμα, 2010: Μνημόνιο, 2012: Κούρεμα, 2015: Δημοψήφισμα, 2018: Έξοδος200720202009Έλλειμμα2010Μνημόνιο2012Κούρεμα2015Δημοψήφισμα2018Έξοδος
Fig. 1The five landmarks that no account of this sub-theme disputes: the revision of the deficit figures in the autumn of 2009; the first assistance programme in May 2010; the restructuring of privately held debt in March 2012; the referendum of 5 July 2015, marked here because it is separately named by the specification under the second sub-theme; and the conclusion of the third programme in August 2018. Everything argued about in this sub-theme is argued about on top of these dates, which is why they are worth memorising exactly.

Key points

The sub-theme begins in 2009 because that is when the Greek fiscal position became a public emergency, and a candidate who can lay out the sequence accurately has bought the right to argue about it for the rest of an essay. In October 2009 a newly elected government announced that the budget deficit was very much larger than had previously been reported; the cost of borrowing rose sharply over the following months. In spring 2010 Greece requested and received financial assistance, and the first programme, το πρώτο μνημόνιο, was agreed in May 2010 with the euro-area member states and the International Monetary Fund, monitored by the group that Greek called η τρόικα — the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the IMF. A second programme followed in 2012, accompanied in March of that year by a restructuring of privately held debt.
The sequence continues through several changes of government. Prime Minister George Papandreou resigned in November 2011 and was succeeded by a coalition under Lucas Papademos; two elections in May and June 2012 produced a coalition under Antonis Samaras; the election of January 2015 brought SYRIZA to office under Alexis Tsipras, in coalition with the Independent Greeks. Negotiations broke down in June 2015, banks were closed and capital controls imposed at the end of that month, and a referendum was held on 5 July 2015. A third programme was nevertheless agreed in August 2015, this time under the European Stability Mechanism, and it concluded in August 2018, after which Greece remained subject to enhanced surveillance. Those dates are the spine of the sub-theme and none of them is contested.
The Greek vocabulary is technical, fixed, and used without gloss by every source you will meet. Το έλλειμμα is the deficit and το χρέος the debt; η ύφεση recession and η ανάπτυξη growth; τα μέτρα the measures, οι περικοπές the cuts, η λιτότητα austerity; η φορολογία taxation and ο φόρος a tax; ο δανεισμός borrowing and τα επιτόκια interest rates; η στάση πληρωμών default and η χρεοκοπία bankruptcy; η αναδιάρθρωση του χρέους debt restructuring; το κούρεμα the haircut, the Greek term for the 2012 write-down; οι ιδιωτικοποιήσεις privatisations; τα κεφαλαιακά ελέγχοι — more usually οι έλεγχοι κεφαλαίων or, as Greek headlines wrote it, τα capital controls. Το μνημόνιο, memorandum, became the ordinary word for a programme and το πρόγραμμα προσαρμογής its formal name.
The discipline that makes this sub-theme writable is separating three kinds of sentence. First, dated events: a government was formed, a programme was signed, a referendum was held. Those are stated flatly and need no hedging. Second, reported magnitudes: Greek output is generally reported to have fallen by roughly a quarter between 2008 and 2013, and unemployment to have risen above a quarter of the labour force at its peak, among the highest rates in the European Union. Those are given with a hedge and a source type, never as a precise figure recalled from memory. Third, causal and evaluative claims: why it happened, whether the adjustment was necessary, who bore the cost. Those always carry an attribution. A paragraph in which all three kinds appear, visibly distinguished, is what the AO4 grid means by critical analysis rather than description.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section A: translating an economic passage into English

Translate for the 20-mark points-based scheme. Η ελληνική κρίση δεν ξεκίνησε το 2010, αλλά τότε έγινε ορατή σε όλους. Το φθινόπωρο του 2009 η νέα κυβέρνηση ανακοίνωσε ότι το έλλειμμα ήταν πολύ μεγαλύτερο από όσο είχε δηλωθεί, και το κόστος δανεισμού εκτινάχθηκε μέσα σε λίγους μήνες. Ό,τι ακολούθησε — τα μνημόνια, οι περικοπές, η ύφεση — είχε ήδη τεθεί σε κίνηση.

  1. 01Sentence 1 — the aorist of γίνομαι, and a predicate adjective

    Η ελληνική κρίση δεν ξεκίνησε το 2010, αλλά τότε έγινε ορατή σε όλους. Έγινε is the simple past of the deponent γίνομαι, became, and ορατή is a predicate adjective agreeing with η κρίση as feminine singular. Σε όλους is to everyone. Το 2010 is a bare accusative of time. The English is: the Greek crisis did not begin in 2010, but that was when it became visible to everyone. Note that τότε, then, is doing the work of the English cleft that was when; a flatter rendering also earns the mark.

  2. 02Sentence 2 — a pluperfect passive inside a comparison

    το έλλειμμα ήταν πολύ μεγαλύτερο από όσο είχε δηλωθεί. Από όσο introduces the second term of a comparison when a clause follows — than what, or than had been. Είχε δηλωθεί is the pluperfect passive of δηλώνω, had been declared or had been reported. Two tenses are stacked here, an imperfect ήταν inside the reported clause and a pluperfect passive inside its comparison, and both must survive into English. A version reading the deficit was much bigger than declared loses the pluperfect and with it a section of language.

  3. 03Sentence 2 continued — a vivid aorist passive

    και το κόστος δανεισμού εκτινάχθηκε μέσα σε λίγους μήνες. Εκτινάσσομαι means to be flung out or to shoot up, and εκτινάχθηκε is its simple past passive; in economic writing it is the standard verb for a rate that jumps. Δανεισμού is a genitive of description: the cost of borrowing. Μέσα σε λίγους μήνες is within a few months. English wants soared or shot up rather than a literal was flung, and a marker will accept any verb that carries the abruptness.

  4. 04Sentence 3 — ό,τι with its comma, and a learned pluperfect passive

    Ό,τι ακολούθησε — τα μνημόνια, οι περικοπές, η ύφεση — είχε ήδη τεθεί σε κίνηση. Ό,τι with a comma is the relative pronoun whatever or everything that, distinct from ότι without one, which is the conjunction that. The comma is the spelling and losing it changes the word. Είχε τεθεί σε κίνηση is a pluperfect passive of the learned verb τίθεμαι, had already been set in motion. The three nouns between the dashes are in apposition to ό,τι and are singular in English idiom only if you recast; keeping them plural is fine.

  5. 05Audit for the three past tenses before you finish

    This passage is a tense exercise disguised as economics: a simple past for the events, an imperfect inside reported speech, two pluperfect passives for what preceded them, and one aorist passive. Read your English once looking only at verbs. If everything has flattened into a single past, you have written fluent English and lost three or four points, which under a points-based scheme is the difference between a strong and an ordinary mark.

Result: The Greek crisis did not begin in 2010; that was when it became visible to everyone. In the autumn of 2009 the new government announced that the deficit was far larger than had been declared, and the cost of borrowing soared within a few months. Everything that followed — the memoranda, the cuts, the recession — had already been set in motion.

Exam focus

  • Learn the spine: 2009 the revision, 2010 the first programme, 2012 the restructuring, 2015 the referendum, 2018 the exit (AO4).
  • Το μνημόνιο, η τρόικα, η λιτότητα, οι περικοπές, η ύφεση, το κούρεμα — the words every Greek source uses unglossed (AO3).
  • Three kinds of sentence: dated event, reported magnitude, attributed interpretation. Keep them visibly apart.
  • Never write a precise statistic from memory. A hedged magnitude with a source type scores better and is honest.

Typical mistakes

  • Quoting an exact percentage for the fall in output or the peak in unemployment. Give the magnitude and the period.
  • Saying the crisis began in 2010. It became public then; the sub-theme's own start date is 2009.
  • Confusing το έλλειμμα, the annual deficit, with το χρέος, the accumulated debt. Sources distinguish them constantly.
  • Treating η τρόικα as an institution. It was a working name for three named bodies, and after 2015 Greek sources more often say οι θεσμοί.

Active revision

Write 200 words in Greek narrating the period from 2009 to 2018 in which every sentence is a dated event or an institutional fact, and no sentence contains an interpretation. Then write a second paragraph of 100 words containing nothing but interpretations, each with a named holder. Reading the two side by side is the fastest way to see the difference the AO4 grid is measuring.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 02

Οι αιτίες: five explanations, each at its strongest#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Τέταρτο Θέμα — Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά: οι αιτίες και οι επιπτώσεις της κρίσηςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

The competing explanations, side by side

Οι αιτίες της κρίσης: πέντε εξηγήσειςTable with 4 columns and 5 rows, Data: Explanation · Advanced mainly by · Emphasises · Plays down; Fiscal and structural · Much official euro-area analysis; Greek reformers · Deficits, tax collection, public payroll, closed professions · Currency-union design and the role of lenders; Currency-union design · Many economists inside and outside Greece · Union without fiscal transfer or devaluation · Domestic policy choices before 2009; Capital flows · Economists focused on the balance of payments · Cheap credit after euro entry; lenders decide too · Failures of Greek public administration; The adjustment itself · Critics of the programmes; later IMF evaluations · Depth and speed of contraction; underestimated multipliers · The constraint of financing the state at all; Long-run political economy · Historians and political scientists · Clientelism, patronage, weak institutions over decades · The specific global shock of 2008EXPLANATIONADVANCED MAINLY BYEMPHASISESPLAYS DOWNFISCAL ANDSTRUCTURALMuch official euro-areaanalysis; Greek reformersDeficits, tax collection,public payroll, closedprofessionsCurrency-union design andthe role of lendersCURRENCY-UNIONDESIGNMany economists inside andoutside GreeceUnion without fiscaltransfer or devaluationDomestic policy choicesbefore 2009CAPITAL FLOWSEconomists focused on thebalance of paymentsCheap credit after euroentry; lenders decide tooFailures of Greek publicadministrationTHE ADJUSTMENTITSELFCritics of the programmes;later IMF evaluationsDepth and speed ofcontraction; underestimatedmultipliersThe constraint of financingthe state at allLONG-RUN POLITICALECONOMYHistorians and politicalscientistsClientelism, patronage, weakinstitutions over decadesThe specific global shock of2008
Fig. 2The specification asks for οι αιτίες της κρίσης, and the honest answer is that there are several accounts which operate at different levels and are not mutually exclusive. Setting them out with who advances each, what each emphasises and what each leaves out is the structure that makes an even-handed essay possible, and it also makes it obvious why a candidate who advances only one is answering a narrower question than the one asked.

Key points

The causes of the Greek crisis are genuinely disputed among economists, historians and politicians, in Greece and outside it, and the specification asks for them by name. The examinable skill is therefore not to know the right answer, because there is no consensus one, but to be able to set out the main explanations accurately, say who advances each, and weigh them. That is exactly what the AO4 grid describes as critical analysis with developed and justified arguments. A candidate who advances a single explanation with certainty is writing a weaker answer than one who advances three and chooses, because the second is doing what the grid measures.
Five explanations recur and each deserves its strongest statement. The fiscal and structural account holds that persistent deficits, weak tax collection, a large public payroll and closed professions left Greece unable to absorb the shock of 2008; this account underlies much official euro-area analysis and is also held by Greek reformers. The currency-union account holds that a monetary union without fiscal transfers, and without the possibility of devaluation, was bound to produce divergence and had no mechanism for correcting it; many economists inside and outside Greece hold this. The capital-flows account emphasises that entry to the euro made credit abruptly cheap, that borrowing has a lender as well as a borrower, and that the imbalance was a euro-area phenomenon rather than a Greek one.
The remaining two shift the object of explanation. The adjustment account argues that the depth and speed of the contraction after 2010 turned a fiscal problem into a social catastrophe, that the multipliers on which the programmes were designed were underestimated, and that this was acknowledged in later evaluations — including internal ones at the International Monetary Fund. The political-economy account, advanced mainly by historians and political scientists, looks past 2009 altogether to clientelism, party patronage and weak administrative institutions built up over decades, and argues that no macroeconomic account can explain why Greece rather than another country. These five are not mutually exclusive, and the strongest essays say so: they operate at different levels and over different timescales.
Writing them requires a small set of Greek constructions that make attribution effortless, and they should be learned as a set. Σύμφωνα με ορισμένους οικονομολόγους, according to some economists. Η κυρίαρχη άποψη στους ευρωπαϊκούς θεσμούς ήταν ότι, the prevailing view in the European institutions was that. Άλλοι αποδίδουν την κρίση σε, others attribute the crisis to. Το επιχείρημα αυτό στηρίζεται στην παρατήρηση ότι, this argument rests on the observation that. Ωστόσο, οι επικριτές του υποστηρίζουν ότι, however, its critics maintain that. Δεν πρόκειται για εξηγήσεις που αλληλοαναιρούνται, these are not mutually cancelling explanations. Five constructions, one per explanation, and the attribution problem is solved for the whole essay.
Worked example

Turning a causal claim into an attributed argument, in Greek

You have written the sentence Η κρίση οφείλεται στη σπατάλη του ελληνικού κράτους. Rewrite it as an A-Level paragraph that would satisfy the AO4 grid, without abandoning the point.

  1. 01Diagnose what is wrong with the sentence

    Η κρίση οφείλεται στη σπατάλη του ελληνικού κράτους asserts a single cause, in the writer's own voice, using an evaluative noun, η σπατάλη, waste, that already contains the judgement. Three separate problems: one cause where there are several, no holder for the claim, and a loaded noun doing argumentative work silently. Each has a fix, and none of them requires giving up the point.

  2. 02Give the claim a holder and a neutral noun

    Μια διαδεδομένη εξήγηση, που υιοθετήθηκε σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τους ευρωπαϊκούς θεσμούς, αποδίδει την κρίση στα χρόνια δημοσιονομικά ελλείμματα και στην αδυναμία είσπραξης των φόρων. Διαδεδομένη, widespread; υιοθετήθηκε, was adopted, a simple past passive; τα χρόνια δημοσιονομικά ελλείμματα, chronic fiscal deficits, replaces the loaded σπατάλη with a term that names the same thing without judging it. The claim survives intact and now has an owner.

  3. 03Add the strongest counter-argument, not a straw one

    Άλλοι, ωστόσο, επισημαίνουν ότι ελλείμματα υπήρχαν και σε άλλες χώρες χωρίς να οδηγήσουν σε ανάλογη κατάρρευση, και αποδίδουν τη διαφορά στη δομή της νομισματικής ένωσης. Επισημαίνουν, point out; χωρίς να οδηγήσουν, without leading, a subjunctive after χωρίς να; αποδίδουν σε, attribute to. The counter-argument is placed at its strongest — it makes a comparative point rather than a moral one — because a weak counter-argument tells an examiner you could not find a strong one.

  4. 04Say what would decide between them

    Το ερώτημα που ξεχωρίζει τις δύο εξηγήσεις είναι γιατί η κρίση εκδηλώθηκε στην Ελλάδα με τέτοια ένταση και όχι αλλού. Naming the question that would discriminate between two explanations is the single most effective move available in this sub-theme, and it costs one sentence. It shows the examiner that you understand the explanations as competing hypotheses rather than as opinions to be balanced.

  5. 05Commit, with a criterion

    Προσωπικά θεωρώ πιο πειστική τη δεύτερη εξήγηση, όχι επειδή απαλλάσσει την ελληνική πολιτική από ευθύνες, αλλά επειδή εξηγεί καλύτερα το χρονικό σημείο. Note the shape: the commitment is explicit, the reason is a criterion — explanatory power over timing — and the όχι επειδή … αλλά επειδή frame heads off the misreading that choosing one explanation means exonerating anyone. Four sentences have replaced one, and the paragraph now does what the top AO4 band describes.

Result: Μια διαδεδομένη εξήγηση, που υιοθετήθηκε σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τους ευρωπαϊκούς θεσμούς, αποδίδει την κρίση στα χρόνια δημοσιονομικά ελλείμματα και στην αδυναμία είσπραξης των φόρων. Άλλοι, ωστόσο, επισημαίνουν ότι ελλείμματα υπήρχαν και σε άλλες χώρες χωρίς να οδηγήσουν σε ανάλογη κατάρρευση, και αποδίδουν τη διαφορά στη δομή της νομισματικής ένωσης. Το ερώτημα που ξεχωρίζει τις δύο εξηγήσεις είναι γιατί η κρίση εκδηλώθηκε στην Ελλάδα με τέτοια ένταση και όχι αλλού. Προσωπικά θεωρώ πιο πειστική τη δεύτερη εξήγηση, όχι επειδή απαλλάσσει την ελληνική πολιτική από ευθύνες, αλλά επειδή εξηγεί καλύτερα το χρονικό σημείο.

Exam focus

  • There is no consensus cause. Set out the main explanations, attribute each, and weigh them (AO4).
  • The five levels: fiscal and structural, currency-union design, capital flows, the adjustment itself, long-run political economy.
  • Say explicitly that the explanations are not mutually exclusive. That observation is itself a perceptive point.
  • Learn the attribution constructions as a set: σύμφωνα με, αποδίδουν σε, στηρίζεται στην παρατήρηση ότι, οι επικριτές του υποστηρίζουν ότι.

Typical mistakes

  • Advancing one cause as fact. It is a position, and a good examiner will notice that it has no holder.
  • Reducing the argument to Greeks overspent or Europe imposed austerity. Both are slogans with real arguments underneath them that the slogan hides.
  • Confusing αποδίδω σε, to attribute to, with αποδίδω, to render or to yield. Context and the preposition distinguish them.
  • Presenting the IMF's later evaluations as a confession. They are published assessments, and should be named as such.

Active revision

Write 250 words in Greek setting out three explanations of the crisis, each in its strongest form and each with an attribution, and then a concluding paragraph saying which you find most persuasive and on what criterion — explanatory power, evidence, or ability to account for timing. Naming your criterion is what makes the conclusion an argument rather than a preference.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 03

Οι επιπτώσεις: what the decade did, and how to write it without inventing numbers#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Τέταρτο Θέμα — Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά: οι αιτίες και οι επιπτώσεις της κρίσηςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The effects are the half of the aspect where a candidate can be most concrete, provided they resist the temptation to supply figures. The documented shape is this. Output contracted over several consecutive years, and the cumulative fall is generally reported as being of the order of a quarter of national income between 2008 and 2013 — a contraction without recent European precedent outside wartime. Unemployment rose to a peak in the middle of the decade at a level reported as above a quarter of the labour force, with youth unemployment far higher. Wages and pensions were reduced repeatedly, taxation rose, and reported poverty and material deprivation increased. Emigration, particularly of graduates, rose markedly. Each of those is a direction and a magnitude, and each can be written with a hedge and a source type.
The effects that are less often written about are the ones that distinguish a good answer. Public services absorbed a large share of the adjustment, with consequences for health and education that were widely reported and argued about. Household arrangements changed: young adults stayed longer in the parental home, family transfers substituted for lost income, and the grandparent-centred care economy described in Θέμα 1 became more load-bearing rather than less. Business closures and the collapse of bank lending changed the composition of the economy, with small businesses particularly exposed. Emigration removed people at the point in life when they would have been paying into the system. These are mechanisms, and mechanisms connect the sub-theme to Θέμα 1 in ways an examiner rewards.
The recovery is part of the aspect too, and omitting it is a common way to write a dated answer. The programmes concluded in August 2018; output grew again in the years that followed, interrupted by the pandemic and resumed after it; unemployment fell substantially from its peak while remaining comparatively high; and Greece regained access to international borrowing. What did not simply reverse is the level: an economy that contracts by a quarter and then grows does not thereby return to where it was, and the distinction between a growth rate and a level is the single most useful analytical point available here. In Greek: η οικονομία ανέκαμψε, αλλά η ανάκαμψη αφορά τον ρυθμό και όχι το επίπεδο.
Two writing disciplines close this aspect. First, when you cannot source a number, write the comparison instead: μεγαλύτερη πτώση από οποιαδήποτε άλλη χώρα της ευρωζώνης την ίδια περίοδο says something checkable without a figure. Second, distinguish what happened from who bore it, because the distributional question is where the argument actually is. The claim that the cost fell disproportionately on particular groups — pensioners, the young, public employees, the low-paid — is made by many Greek and international observers, and it is a claim with holders, evidence and critics. Present it as one, with η κατανομή του κόστους, the distribution of the cost, as the noun phrase that organises the paragraph.
Worked example

Paper 3 Section A: hearing a distinction inside a description of unrest

Transcript of a listening item. Οι διαδηλώσεις εκείνων των χρόνων δεν ήταν μία ενιαία κίνηση. Άλλοι κατέβαιναν στους δρόμους επειδή έχαναν τη σύνταξή τους, άλλοι επειδή δεν έβρισκαν δουλειά, και άλλοι επειδή θεωρούσαν ότι οι αποφάσεις παίρνονταν αλλού. Το να τους βάζει κανείς όλους στην ίδια κατηγορία είναι βολικό, αλλά δεν εξηγεί τίποτα.

  1. 01Hear the negation in the first sentence, which sets the whole item up

    δεν ήταν μία ενιαία κίνηση. Ενιαίος means unified or single, and the speaker is denying that the protests were one movement. Everything that follows is evidence for that denial. Εκείνων των χρόνων is a genitive plural demonstrative, of those years, and it locates the item in the crisis decade without naming it. A candidate who hears only the word διαδηλώσεις and prepares to summarise a description of protests will misreport the item entirely.

  2. 02Count the three άλλοι clauses, because each is a separate answer

    Άλλοι … άλλοι … και άλλοι …. The correlative άλλοι … άλλοι means some … others, and here it runs three times, giving three distinct motives: losing a pension, not finding work, and believing decisions were being taken elsewhere. Each has its own επειδή clause with its own imperfect: έχαναν, from χάνω; έβρισκαν, from βρίσκω; θεωρούσαν, from θεωρώ, followed by a subordinate clause with the mediopassive imperfect παίρνονταν. A summary question is asking for all three.

  3. 03Recognise the nominalised clause in the last sentence

    Το να τους βάζει κανείς όλους στην ίδια κατηγορία είναι βολικό. Greek nominalises a whole clause by putting the neuter article in front of να: το να βάζει κανείς, the putting of them all, or lumping them together. Κανείς here is the indefinite one, not nobody, because there is no δεν. Βολικό means convenient. The speaker's point is that the convenience of a single category is precisely what makes it useless as an explanation — and that judgement, not the list, is the item's conclusion.

  4. 04Write the summary so the distinction survives

    Ο ομιλητής υποστηρίζει ότι οι διαδηλώσεις της περιόδου δεν αποτελούσαν ενιαίο κίνημα, καθώς οι συμμετέχοντες κινητοποιούνταν για διαφορετικούς λόγους — απώλεια σύνταξης, ανεργία, αίσθηση ότι οι αποφάσεις λαμβάνονταν εκτός της χώρας — και θεωρεί ότι η ενιαία κατηγοριοποίησή τους είναι εύκολη αλλά χωρίς ερμηνευτική αξία. Note κινητοποιούνταν, a mediopassive imperfect, and λαμβάνονταν, a higher-register synonym of παίρνονταν: substituting synonyms is how you show comprehension without lifting.

Result: Model summary in Greek: Ο ομιλητής υποστηρίζει ότι οι διαδηλώσεις της περιόδου δεν αποτελούσαν ενιαίο κίνημα, καθώς οι συμμετέχοντες κινητοποιούνταν για διαφορετικούς λόγους — απώλεια σύνταξης, ανεργία, αίσθηση ότι οι αποφάσεις λαμβάνονταν εκτός της χώρας — και θεωρεί ότι η ενιαία κατηγοριοποίησή τους είναι εύκολη αλλά χωρίς ερμηνευτική αξία.

Exam focus

  • Direction and magnitude with a hedge, never a recalled percentage. A comparison is often better than a number (AO4).
  • Include the recovery from 2018 onwards, and distinguish a growth rate from a level.
  • Mechanisms connect to Θέμα 1: households, care, emigration, small business, public services.
  • Η κατανομή του κόστους is where the real argument lives. Attribute it and give it critics.

Typical mistakes

  • Ending the account in 2015 or 2018 and leaving the reader with a picture that is a decade out of date.
  • Writing unemployment reached 27 per cent, or GDP fell 25 per cent, from memory. Hedge and attribute.
  • Treating recovery as reversal. Growth after a contraction is not a return to the previous level.
  • Describing effects without saying who bore them, which is the question everyone in Greece is actually arguing about.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Greek on Ποιες ήταν οι συνέπειες της κρίσης και ποιοι τις επωμίστηκαν; in which no sentence contains a precise statistic, at least three sentences contain a hedged magnitude or a comparison, and the final third is devoted entirely to distribution, with attribution.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 04

Ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Τέταρτο Θέμα — Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά: ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής ΈνωσηςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The second aspect asks specifically about the European Union, and the first thing to get right is which bodies were actually involved, because Greek sources name them precisely and a vague answer is visibly vague. Η Ευρωπαϊκή Επιτροπή is the European Commission; η Ευρωπαϊκή Κεντρική Τράπεζα the European Central Bank; το Διεθνές Νομισματικό Ταμείο, το ΔΝΤ, the International Monetary Fund, which is not a European institution at all; το Eurogroup, in Greek usually το Γιούρογκρουπ, the meeting of euro-area finance ministers; and ο Ευρωπαϊκός Μηχανισμός Σταθερότητας, the European Stability Mechanism, which financed the third programme from 2015. The working name η τρόικα covered the first three; after 2015 Greek official language preferred οι θεσμοί, the institutions.
Greece's membership is the frame and it is dateable. Greece joined the European Communities in 1981 and adopted the euro in 2001; membership of a currency union removes both the exchange rate and the independent interest rate as instruments, which is why the adjustment after 2010 had to fall on wages, prices and public spending. That is not an opinion but a mechanical consequence of the monetary arrangements, and stating it precisely gives an answer analytical weight before any evaluation begins. Greek for it: η συμμετοχή στη νομισματική ένωση απέκλειε την υποτίμηση, ώστε η προσαρμογή έπρεπε να γίνει μέσω μισθών και τιμών — the so-called εσωτερική υποτίμηση, internal devaluation.
The evaluation is where attribution becomes essential, because the European Union's role is described in incompatible ways by people arguing in good faith. One account holds that the Union and its partners prevented a disorderly default and kept Greece inside the euro at very large cost to other member states' taxpayers, and that the conditions attached were the price of that support. Another holds that the programmes were designed to protect creditors, that their conditions deepened the recession, and that the political cost was borne by a population with the least responsibility for the borrowing. A third points out that both are partly right and that the arrangements exposed a genuine gap in the euro area's design that has since been partly addressed. Name the holders and let the reader see the disagreement.
Two further threads belong to this aspect and are often missed. First, the argument inside Greece about membership itself: proposals for leaving the euro, το Grexit as the international press called it and η έξοδος από το ευρώ in Greek, were seriously debated in 2012 and again in 2015, and were rejected by successive governments and by most of the parliamentary parties. Second, what the Union did besides lending: structural and cohesion funds, the Recovery and Resilience Facility after 2020, and technical support programmes. An answer that treats the Union solely as a creditor has described one instrument out of several, and saying so is an easy way to look better informed than the question expected.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section B: reading a deliberately even-handed passage

Read as in Paper 1 Section B and answer in Greek. Ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης στην ελληνική κρίση περιγράφεται πολύ διαφορετικά ανάλογα με το ποιος μιλάει. Για ορισμένους, η Ένωση απέτρεψε μια άτακτη χρεοκοπία και κράτησε τη χώρα στο ευρώ. Για άλλους, επέβαλε ένα πρόγραμμα προσαρμογής του οποίου το κόστος επωμίστηκαν εκείνοι που είχαν τη μικρότερη ευθύνη. Και οι δύο απόψεις στηρίζονται σε πραγματικά γεγονότα· διαφέρουν στο τι θεωρούν σημαντικό.

  1. 01Read the first sentence as a claim about description, not about events

    περιγράφεται πολύ διαφορετικά ανάλογα με το ποιος μιλάει. Περιγράφεται is a mediopassive present, is described; ανάλογα με is depending on; το ποιος μιλάει is a nominalised question, who is speaking. The writer's opening move is to make the description itself the subject, which tells you the passage will present views rather than adjudicate. Any question asking Τι δηλώνει ο συγγραφέας στην πρώτη πρόταση; is answered by that and not by any of the content that follows.

  2. 02Match the two Για clauses, which are the two views

    Για ορισμένους … Για άλλους …. This is the cleanest attribution structure Greek offers: for some, for others. The first view uses two simple past verbs, απέτρεψε, prevented, from αποτρέπω, and κράτησε, kept. Άτακτη χρεοκοπία is a disorderly default, and άτακτος, disorderly, is the standard term. The second uses επέβαλε, imposed, from επιβάλλω. Note that the two views are not about different facts: both accept that a programme happened and that Greece stayed in the euro.

  3. 03Parse the genitive relative, which is the passage's hardest structure

    ένα πρόγραμμα προσαρμογής του οποίου το κόστος επωμίστηκαν εκείνοι που είχαν τη μικρότερη ευθύνη. Του οποίου is the genitive of ο οποίος and means whose; it agrees in gender and number with πρόγραμμα, its antecedent, and takes the case its own clause requires. Το κόστος is the object of επωμίστηκαν, the simple past of the deponent επωμίζομαι, to shoulder. Εκείνοι που είχαν τη μικρότερη ευθύνη is the subject. So: an adjustment programme whose cost was shouldered by those who bore the least responsibility. Both the genitive relative and the deponent past are worth stealing for your own writing.

  4. 04Answer the inevitable question about the final sentence

    Και οι δύο απόψεις στηρίζονται σε πραγματικά γεγονότα· διαφέρουν στο τι θεωρούν σημαντικό. A question of the form Πώς εξηγεί ο συγγραφέας τη διαφορά ανάμεσα στις δύο απόψεις; is answered here. A strong answer in Greek: Κατά τον συγγραφέα, η διαφωνία δεν αφορά τα γεγονότα, τα οποία και οι δύο πλευρές αποδέχονται, αλλά την ιεράρχησή τους, δηλαδή το ποια από αυτά θεωρούνται καθοριστικά. Note η ιεράρχηση, the ranking, substituted for the writer's τι θεωρούν σημαντικό — a single noun that proves comprehension.

Result: Model answer in Greek: Κατά τον συγγραφέα, η διαφωνία δεν αφορά τα γεγονότα, τα οποία και οι δύο πλευρές αποδέχονται, αλλά την ιεράρχησή τους, δηλαδή το ποια από αυτά θεωρούνται καθοριστικά.

Exam focus

  • Name the bodies precisely: Επιτροπή, ΕΚΤ, ΔΝΤ, Γιούρογκρουπ, ΕΜΣ. Vagueness here is visible (AO4).
  • Currency-union membership removed devaluation as an instrument. State that mechanically, before any evaluation.
  • Give at least two incompatible evaluations, each with holders, and a third that reconciles them partially.
  • The Union was not only a creditor: structural funds, cohesion policy, the post-2020 recovery facility.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing Europe as though it were one actor. Five distinct bodies were involved and one of them is not European.
  • Calling η τρόικα an institution rather than a working name for three named bodies.
  • Omitting the euro-exit debate, which was a real argument in 2012 and 2015 and is part of the aspect.
  • Delivering a verdict on whether the Union helped or harmed Greece. Present the accounts; name their holders.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Greek on Ποιος ήταν ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης στην ελληνική κρίση; Name at least four institutions correctly, state one mechanical consequence of currency-union membership without evaluating it, and then give two incompatible evaluations with their holders before committing.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 05

Κοινωνικές διαμάχες και αναταραχές#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Τέταρτο Θέμα — Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά: κοινωνικές διαμάχες και αναταραχέςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The third aspect names two things and they are not the same. Οι διαμάχες are conflicts or disputes — arguments between organised interests, played out in politics, in the press and in institutions. Οι αναταραχές are unrest — the visible, often street-level disturbance that a conflict can produce. A good answer treats the second as an expression of the first rather than as the whole subject, because an essay about riots is a much smaller essay than the one the specification asked for. The vocabulary: η διαδήλωση a demonstration, η πορεία a march, η απεργία a strike, η γενική απεργία a general strike, η κατάληψη an occupation, τα επεισόδια incidents or clashes, η αστυνομία, τα ΜΑΤ the riot police, η καταστολή repression or crackdown, το συλλαλητήριο a mass rally, το σωματείο a trade union branch, η ΓΣΕΕ and η ΑΔΕΔΥ the private- and public-sector confederations.
The documented shape of the period is that protest was frequent, large and organised through existing structures as well as new ones. General strikes were called repeatedly by the two confederations across the programme years; large demonstrations concentrated on Syntagma Square in Athens, in front of the parliament; in 2011 the movement known as οι αγανακτισμένοι, the indignant, occupied central squares in Athens and Thessaloniki over several weeks, a movement with counterparts elsewhere in southern Europe; and some demonstrations were accompanied by clashes and by property damage, while very many were not. That last clause matters: describing every demonstration as a riot misrepresents the record, and describing none of them as violent misrepresents it in the other direction.
The conflicts underneath were about specific things and naming them is what turns description into analysis. Pensions and their repeated reduction; public-sector employment, the availability scheme and dismissals; the taxation of property, of which the ΕΝΦΙΑ property tax became the most argued-about single measure; the closure and reopening of the public broadcaster in 2013 and 2015; privatisations, including the ports; labour law and collective bargaining. Each has an identifiable set of interests on each side, and a candidate who can say who was arguing with whom about what, rather than that people were angry, is writing at a different level. In Greek: το διακύβευμα, the stake, is the noun that organises this kind of paragraph.
Two cautions and one connection. First, the caution about attribution: assessments of policing, of the scale of participation, and of the responsibility for violence at particular events differ sharply between the police, the government of the day, participants, journalists and human-rights organisations, and each of those assessments belongs behind a named holder. Second, the caution about periodisation: the intensity of this period was not permanent, and protest declined in frequency after the middle of the decade, which is itself something to explain. The connection: unrest is where this sub-theme meets the next one, because the shape of the party system after 2012 is unintelligible without it — and saying so leads straight into Η πολιτική σκηνή.
Worked example

Paper 2 Section A: translating a passage about the adjustment into Greek

Translate into Greek for the 20-mark points-based scheme. Between 2010 and 2018 Greece signed three assistance programmes. Wages and pensions were cut, taxes rose, and unemployment reached a level that had not been seen since the war. Whether that adjustment was unavoidable is still argued about, and the argument is not only economic.

  1. 01Sentence 1 — the date frame and the past of υπογράφω

    Από το 2010 έως το 2018 η Ελλάδα υπέγραψε τρία προγράμματα βοήθειας. Between X and Y in a date range is από … έως, and both years take the neuter article. Υπέγραψε is the simple past of υπογράφω, signed; the stem shifts from -γραφ- to -γραψ- and the augment appears as υπέ- rather than υπο-, which is exactly the kind of form the grammar list means by common irregular verbs. Προγράμματα βοήθειας is a genitive of description, programmes of assistance.

  2. 02Sentence 2 — three passives and one pluperfect passive

    Οι μισθοί και οι συντάξεις περικόπηκαν, οι φόροι αυξήθηκαν και η ανεργία έφτασε σε επίπεδο που δεν είχε παρατηρηθεί από τον πόλεμο. Περικόπηκαν is the simple past passive of περικόπτω, were cut; αυξήθηκαν the simple past passive of αυξάνω, rose or were increased; είχε παρατηρηθεί the pluperfect passive of παρατηρώ, had been observed. Three passive forms in one sentence, one of them pluperfect, is precisely what the AO3 guidance means by complex language, and here the English demanded them anyway. Από τον πόλεμο is since the war, with από covering since as well as from.

  3. 03Sentence 3 — nominalise the embedded question

    Το αν η προσαρμογή αυτή ήταν αναπόφευκτη συζητείται ακόμη. Whether that adjustment was unavoidable is a clause functioning as the subject of the sentence, and Greek nominalises it with the neuter article: το αν. Συζητείται is the mediopassive present, is discussed or is argued about. Note the word order: the long nominalised subject stands first and the verb follows, which is normal in Greek and reads as good style rather than as translation.

  4. 04Sentence 3 continued, and the case check

    και η συζήτηση δεν είναι μόνο οικονομική. Οικονομική is a predicate adjective agreeing with η συζήτηση. Then run the audit the examiner guidance points you to: prepositions and their cases — από το 2010, έως το 2018, σε επίπεδο, από τον πόλεμο, all accusative; verb persons and tenses — υπέγραψε singular with η Ελλάδα, περικόπηκαν and αυξήθηκαν plural with their plural subjects, έφτασε singular with η ανεργία. Only after those two passes read for sense.

Result: Από το 2010 έως το 2018 η Ελλάδα υπέγραψε τρία προγράμματα βοήθειας. Οι μισθοί και οι συντάξεις περικόπηκαν, οι φόροι αυξήθηκαν και η ανεργία έφτασε σε επίπεδο που δεν είχε παρατηρηθεί από τον πόλεμο. Το αν η προσαρμογή αυτή ήταν αναπόφευκτη συζητείται ακόμη, και η συζήτηση δεν είναι μόνο οικονομική.

Exam focus

  • Οι διαμάχες are the conflicts; οι αναταραχές their visible expression. Do not write only about the second (AO4).
  • Name what was actually being argued about: pensions, public employment, ΕΝΦΙΑ, the broadcaster, privatisations, labour law.
  • Οι αγανακτισμένοι of 2011, the general strikes, Syntagma — specific enough to be evidence.
  • Assessments of policing and of responsibility for violence always carry a named holder.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing about the period as continuous rioting. Most demonstrations were large and peaceful; some were not; both facts belong.
  • Confusing η απεργία, a strike, with η διαδήλωση, a demonstration. They are different actions by different actors.
  • Failing to explain the decline in protest after the middle of the decade, which is as interesting as its peak.
  • Making unattributed claims about police conduct or about who started what at a particular event.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Greek on Γιατί οι κοινωνικές αναταραχές της περιόδου 2010–2015 δεν ήταν ενιαίο φαινόμενο; Name at least three distinct disputes with their stakes, distinguish the conflict from its expression, and attribute at least two contested assessments. End by offering one explanation for why protest became less frequent later in the decade.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel) · GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages (Department for Education)

Contents

Section -- / 05

    • 01The dated sequence, 2009 to 2018, and why it must come first●
    • 02Οι αιτίες: five explanations, each at its strongest●
    • 03Οι επιπτώσεις: what the decade did, and how to write it without inventing numbers●
    • 04Ο ρόλος της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης●
    • 05Κοινωνικές διαμάχες και αναταραχές●

0/5 Read

From notes into training

Τέταρτο Θέμα I: Η οικονομία από το 2009 και μετά

Reinforce this topic with matching tasks from the question bank.

~35
min
4
Competencies
Practise

References & sources

Sources

Pearson Edexcel

  • Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification

Department for Education

  • GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Previous topic

Δεύτερο Θέμα II: Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα — and the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο

Next topic

Τέταρτο Θέμα II: Η πολιτική σκηνή — parties, figures, the 2015 referendum, and Πρόσφυγες στην Ελλάδα

EuraStudy·Notes T·05·MMXXVI

Carry on to the next topic — your learning path is kept.