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Notes/Greek (Modern)/Δεύτερο Θέμα II: Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα — and the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο
Notes · Greek (Modern)UK · A-Levels

Δεύτερο Θέμα II: Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα — and the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο

This topic carries the second sub-theme of Edexcel's second theme, Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα, with its three aspects of τοπικές γιορτές, local festivals; παραδοσιακοί τρόποι αναψυχής και ψυχαγωγίας, traditional forms of recreation and entertainment; and απόψεις σχετικά με την παράδοση και τα πιστεύω, attitudes to tradition and belief. It also carries the theme's research subject, Το ρεμπέτικο, whose three aspects are το ιστορικό πλαίσιο, the historical context; θεματολογία και πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, subject matter and cultural setting; and διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες του ρεμπέτικου, famous rebetiko artists. Theme 2 is set in the context of Greece only. One planning warning belongs at the top rather than buried: the independent research must not relate to, or make reference to, either of the works studied for Paper 2, and one of the prescribed films, Ουζερί Τσιτσάνης, is built around a rebetiko composer. A student who studies that film for Paper 2 cannot also take Το ρεμπέτικο as a research subject, and the choice has to be made early enough that neither decision traps the other. Greek is monotonic throughout, and the culture-specific words are given untranslated with a gloss, because those words are themselves what the AO4 grid is looking for.

5 sections·~36 min reading time·4 competencies·Level Standard 2 · Advanced 3

T·0444 / 12
Exam profile
AO1 · Understand and respond in writing to spoken Greek about festivals, music, custom and belief, including older recorded speech and songAO2 · Understand and respond in writing to written Greek of ethnographic, journalistic and historical registerAO3 · Manipulate Greek accurately, using the vocabulary of custom, festival, music and belief without over-translating itAO4 · Show knowledge and understanding of, and respond critically to, Greek tradition and belief, including the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο
Operators:αναλύωαξιολογώσυγκρίνωπεριγράφωεξηγώτεκμηριώνωσχολιάζωσυνοψίζω

basic level

At first-year standard the expectation is accurate description of a named custom with its Greek name, its date and what actually happens, and one honest personal response.

higher level

The full A-Level expects the custom to be placed — in a region, a period, a social class — the change in it to be described, and any claim about what Greeks believe to be attributed rather than asserted about a nation.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 5 sections▾
  1. Δεύτερο Θέμα II: Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα — and the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο
    • 01Τοπικές γιορτές: the calendar, the πανηγύρι, and how to write about a custom◐
    • 02Παραδοσιακοί τρόποι αναψυχής και ψυχαγωγίας◐
    • 03Απόψεις σχετικά με την παράδοση και τα πιστεύω●
    • 04Ερευνητικό θέμα I: Το ρεμπέτικο — το ιστορικό πλαίσιο●
    • 05Ερευνητικό θέμα II: θεματολογία, πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες●
§ 01

Τοπικές γιορτές: the calendar, the πανηγύρι, and how to write about a custom#

●●○StandardLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Δεύτερο Θέμα — Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα: τοπικές γιορτέςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The first aspect is τοπικές γιορτές, local festivals, and the single most useful Greek word for it is το πανηγύρι: the festival held in a village or a town quarter on the feast day of its patron saint, with an open-air meal, live music and dancing that can last most of the night. It is not a festival in the sense of το φεστιβάλ, which in Greek means an organised arts or film event with a programme and tickets, and translating one as the other is the commonest single vocabulary error in this aspect. Related words: η γιορτή, the feast or celebration and also a name day; τα έθιμα, customs; το πανηγυράκι, a small one; ο πολιούχος, the patron saint of a place; το γλέντι, the party or revel; ο εσπερινός, vespers, which in many places precedes the eating.
The calendar is largely, though not entirely, the Orthodox one, and knowing its shape lets a candidate be specific without inventing anything. Τα Χριστούγεννα on 25 December, with τα κάλαντα, the carols children sing door to door. Η Πρωτοχρονιά on 1 January, when in Greek tradition it is ο Άγιος Βασίλης who brings presents, and when families cut η βασιλόπιτα with το φλουρί, a coin baked inside it. Τα Θεοφάνεια or τα Φώτα on 6 January, with ο αγιασμός των υδάτων, the blessing of the waters, and the throwing of the cross into the sea for swimmers to retrieve. Οι Απόκριες, the carnival weeks, of which the Patras carnival is the largest. Η Καθαρά Δευτέρα, Clean Monday, the first day of Lent, spent outdoors with η λαγάνα, the flatbread, and το πέταγμα του χαρταετού, kite-flying.
Two more anchors and one caution. Το Πάσχα is the largest feast of the year for most Greeks, and it does not always fall on the same Sunday as Easter in the Western churches, because the Orthodox date is calculated differently — a fact worth stating precisely because it is exactly the sort of specific an examiner notices. The Holy Week sequence is η Μεγάλη Εβδομάδα, with ο Επιτάφιος carried in procession on Good Friday and η Ανάσταση announced at midnight on Holy Saturday, followed by μαγειρίτσα, the red eggs and, on Sunday, το αρνί στη σούβλα. Ο Δεκαπενταύγουστος, 15 August, the Dormition of the Theotokos, is the summer's great feast and draws pilgrims to Tinos in particular. The caution: describe what is done, not what everyone believes.
How to write about a custom well is a technique, and it is worth learning as one, because it applies to every aspect of this sub-theme. Four moves. Name it in Greek and give the date or season. Say where — a region, an island, a quarter of a city — because Greek custom is emphatically local and a generalisation over the whole country is usually false. Say what actually happens, in the present tense, concretely enough that a reader could picture it. Then say what has changed and who says so: many festivals have become larger and more organised, some have become tourist events, some have been revived after lapsing, and each of those is a claim you can attribute. A candidate who does those four things has written an A-Level paragraph rather than a postcard.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section A: translating a passage on festivals into English

Translate for the 20-mark points-based scheme. Στην Ελλάδα η γιορτή δεν είναι πάντα προσωπική υπόθεση. Το πανηγύρι ενός χωριού κρατάει ολόκληρη νύχτα και σε αυτό συμμετέχουν όσοι έχουν φύγει και επιστρέφουν μία φορά τον χρόνο. Την Καθαρά Δευτέρα οι πλατείες γεμίζουν χαρταετούς, ενώ το Πάσχα, που δεν συμπίπτει πάντοτε με το καθολικό, θεωρείται από πολλούς η σημαντικότερη γιορτή του έτους.

  1. 01Sentence 1 — decide what η γιορτή means here

    Στην Ελλάδα η γιορτή δεν είναι πάντα προσωπική υπόθεση. Η γιορτή can be a feast day, a celebration or a name day, and the following sentence about the village πανηγύρι shows that the writer means the public kind. Προσωπική υπόθεση is a personal matter or a private affair. So: in Greece a celebration is not always a private matter. The claim being made is about the public and collective character of Greek festivity, and reading it as a sentence about birthdays would lose the paragraph.

  2. 02Sentence 2 — an accusative of duration and a headless relative

    Το πανηγύρι ενός χωριού κρατάει ολόκληρη νύχτα και σε αυτό συμμετέχουν όσοι έχουν φύγει και επιστρέφουν μία φορά τον χρόνο. Κρατάει, from κρατώ, means lasts here rather than holds. Ολόκληρη νύχτα is a bare accusative marking duration, all night long, with no preposition to translate. Όσοι is a headless relative, those who or all who, and it governs two verbs: έχουν φύγει, a present perfect, have left, and επιστρέφουν, a present, return. Μία φορά τον χρόνο is once a year, with another bare accusative of time. The English is: a village πανηγύρι lasts all night, and those who have left and come back once a year take part in it.

  3. 03Sentence 3 — a verb of filling that takes a direct object

    Την Καθαρά Δευτέρα οι πλατείες γεμίζουν χαρταετούς. Την Καθαρά Δευτέρα is again a bare accusative, on Clean Monday. Γεμίζω is intransitive in the sense to fill up and also takes an accusative of what fills, so οι πλατείες γεμίζουν χαρταετούς is the squares fill up with kites — the English needs with, the Greek does not. Ο χαρταετός is a kite, literally a paper eagle, and kite-flying on Clean Monday is the custom being referred to. A candidate who translates χαρταετούς as eagles has read the word and not the compound.

  4. 04Sentence 4 — the mediopassive with a nominative predicate

    το Πάσχα, που δεν συμπίπτει πάντοτε με το καθολικό, θεωρείται από πολλούς η σημαντικότερη γιορτή του έτους. Συμπίπτει με is coincides with; το καθολικό is elliptical for το καθολικό Πάσχα, Catholic or Western Easter. Θεωρείται is the mediopassive of θεωρώ, is considered, and because θεωρούμαι is copular its complement stays nominative: η σημαντικότερη γιορτή, not την. That nominative is a real AO3 point when you write it yourself, and it is the kind of thing a candidate hypercorrects into the accusative under time pressure. Από πολλούς is by many people, the agent phrase of a passive.

Result: In Greece a celebration is not always a private matter. A village πανηγύρι lasts all night, and those who have left and come back once a year take part in it. On Clean Monday the squares fill with kites, while Easter, which does not always coincide with the Western one, is regarded by many as the most important feast of the year.

Exam focus

  • Το πανηγύρι is a saint's-day village festival; το φεστιβάλ is an organised arts event. Never swap them (AO3).
  • Name, date, place, what happens, what changed — the four-move method for any custom (AO4).
  • Be precise about the Orthodox Easter date being calculated differently. Precision of that kind reads as knowledge.
  • Greek custom is local. Say which island, which region, which quarter.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing about Greek customs as though the whole country did the same thing on the same day.
  • Using το φεστιβάλ for a πανηγύρι, which makes a village saint's day sound like a ticketed arts programme.
  • Claiming what Greeks believe. Describe the practice; attribute the belief.
  • Forgetting that in Greek tradition New Year, not Christmas, is when Άγιος Βασίλης brings presents.

Active revision

Choose one Greek festival and write 200 words in Greek about it using the four moves in order: name and date, place, what happens, what has changed and who says so. The place must be specific — a named island, region or quarter — and the last move must carry an attribution.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 02

Παραδοσιακοί τρόποι αναψυχής και ψυχαγωγίας#

●●○StandardLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Δεύτερο Θέμα — Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα: παραδοσιακοί τρόποι αναψυχής και ψυχαγωγίαςLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The specification pairs two nouns here and they are not synonyms. Η αναψυχή is recreation — what you do to rest and recover, a walk, a swim, a coffee, time with friends. Η ψυχαγωγία is entertainment, something performed or provided that you attend or watch. The distinction is worth keeping because the traditional Greek forms sit mostly on the αναψυχή side: the ordinary, unticketed, repeatable sociability of the καφενείο and the square, rather than a show. Το καφενείο is the traditional coffee house, historically male and central to village and neighbourhood life; η βόλτα is the evening walk out with no destination; η παρέα is the group you do it with; το τάβλι is backgammon, played in the coffee house; and το κέρασμα, the standing of a round, is a social obligation with rules.
The music and dance are where this aspect becomes examinable, because they are specific and namable. Traditional instruments: το μπουζούκι and its small relative ο μπαγλαμάς; το κλαρίνο, the clarinet, which dominates mainland folk music; το λαούτο, the lute that accompanies it; η λύρα, the bowed lyra of Crete and of the Pontic tradition; το σαντούρι, the hammered dulcimer; and the pairing of ζουρνάς and νταούλι, shawm and drum, that plays outdoors. Dances: ο καλαματιανός and ο συρτός, danced in an open circle; ο τσάμικος; ο χασάπικος; το ζεϊμπέκικο, danced alone and improvised; ο πεντοζάλης of Crete. Naming three instruments and three dances correctly does more for an AO4 mark than a paragraph about how Greeks love to dance.
Ο Καραγκιόζης deserves its own place, because it is the one traditional entertainment that is unambiguously ψυχαγωγία and because it is genuinely distinctive. Το θέατρο σκιών, shadow theatre, was a popular urban and village entertainment for generations, performed behind a lit screen with flat articulated figures; its central character, Καραγκιόζης, is poor, hungry, cunning and permanently in trouble with authority, and the form was passed from performer to performer as a repertoire rather than a script. It survives today mainly as a children's entertainment and as heritage. It is the perfect example for an essay because it lets you say precisely what happened to a tradition: not that it died, but that it changed audience.
The analytical question this aspect asks is what happened when these forms met commercial entertainment, and there is a defensible answer that avoids nostalgia. Some forms were absorbed and professionalised — folk music moved from the square to the stage and the recording; some survive in a designated context, at a wedding, a πανηγύρι or a festival, rather than in daily life; some, like the καφενείο, persist while their social function narrows; and some were revived deliberately by cultural associations, οι πολιτιστικοί σύλλογοι, and by dance schools. Four fates, not one. In Greek: ορισμένες μορφές επαγγελματοποιήθηκαν, άλλες επιβίωσαν μόνο σε συγκεκριμένες περιστάσεις, άλλες συρρικνώθηκαν και άλλες αναβιώθηκαν συνειδητά.
Worked example

Paper 3 Section A: hearing an argument about what changed

Transcript of a listening item. Παλιά, η διασκέδαση δεν χρειαζόταν εισιτήριο. Το γλέντι γινόταν στο σπίτι ή στην πλατεία, με όργανα που τα έπαιζαν άνθρωποι του χωριού, όχι επαγγελματίες. Σήμερα το ίδιο τραγούδι ακούγεται σε μια συναυλία με εισιτήριο, και αυτό δεν είναι κατ' ανάγκην κακό· είναι όμως άλλο πράγμα.

  1. 01Register the two imperfects, which set the whole item in the past habitual

    δεν χρειαζόταν εισιτήριο … Το γλέντι γινόταν στο σπίτι. Χρειαζόταν is the imperfect of the deponent χρειάζομαι and γινόταν the imperfect of γίνομαι; both are mediopassive imperfects and both mean used to. In speech these forms are easy to mishear as presents, and mishearing them turns a historical contrast into a description of today, which is the opposite of the item's meaning. Παλιά, in the old days, is the adverb that flags the whole frame.

  2. 02Catch the resumptive pronoun in the relative clause

    με όργανα που τα έπαιζαν άνθρωποι του χωριού, όχι επαγγελματίες. Που cannot show case, so τα carries the accusative that the instruments have as objects of έπαιζαν. The point of the clause is who played, not what was played: people of the village, not professionals. A question asking Ποια είναι η διαφορά που τονίζει ο ομιλητής; is answered here as much as anywhere, because the professionalisation is the change.

  3. 03Hear the concession, which stops the item being a lament

    και αυτό δεν είναι κατ' ανάγκην κακό· είναι όμως άλλο πράγμα. Κατ' ανάγκην, necessarily, is a learned adverbial phrase with the older accusative in -ην; it is common in careful speech and worth adding to your own stock. The speaker explicitly declines to condemn the change and instead calls it a different thing. Any answer that reports the speaker as saying modern entertainment is worse has failed on the one sentence that distinguishes a thoughtful source from a nostalgic one — and examiners choose sources like this precisely because that distinction is testable.

  4. 04Note where the summary marks would sit

    Section A of Paper 3 contains questions that specifically test summary skills, and a summary of this item has exactly three components: entertainment used to be unticketed and made by non-professionals in domestic and public space; it is now performed professionally to a paying audience; and the speaker regards this as a change of kind rather than a decline. Write those three, in Greek, in about thirty words, and you have the item. Adding a fourth sentence of your own opinion adds nothing, because 5(c) is where opinion is paid for.

Result: Summary in Greek: Παλαιότερα η διασκέδαση ήταν δωρεάν και την παρήγαν οι ίδιοι οι κάτοικοι, στο σπίτι ή στην πλατεία. Σήμερα η ίδια μουσική παρουσιάζεται από επαγγελματίες σε συναυλίες με εισιτήριο. Ο ομιλητής δεν θεωρεί την αλλαγή απαραίτητα αρνητική, αλλά την περιγράφει ως αλλαγή είδους.

Exam focus

  • Η αναψυχή is recreation, η ψυχαγωγία is entertainment. The specification names both deliberately (AO3).
  • Name instruments and dances precisely — μπουζούκι, κλαρίνο, λύρα, λαούτο; καλαματιανός, τσάμικος, ζεϊμπέκικο (AO4).
  • Ο Καραγκιόζης is the best single example of a tradition that changed audience rather than dying.
  • Give the meeting with commercial entertainment four outcomes, not a decline story.

Typical mistakes

  • Treating το μπουζούκι as the only Greek instrument. Το κλαρίνο dominates mainland folk music and η λύρα dominates Crete.
  • Writing that traditional entertainment disappeared. It changed context, audience and often profession.
  • Confusing ο χορός, dance, with η χορωδία, choir.
  • Romanticising το καφενείο without noting that it was historically a male space, which is part of its history.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Greek on Τι απέγιναν οι παραδοσιακοί τρόποι διασκέδασης στην Ελλάδα; Use the four-fates structure — professionalised, confined to set occasions, shrunken, deliberately revived — and give a named example of each. Include at least two instruments and two dances by name.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 03

Απόψεις σχετικά με την παράδοση και τα πιστεύω#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Δεύτερο Θέμα — Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα: απόψεις σχετικά με την παράδοση και τα πιστεύωLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

The third aspect asks about attitudes, and attitudes are the one thing in this whole theme that must never be asserted about a nation. Τα πιστεύω, an indeclinable neuter plural formed from the verb, means beliefs in the widest sense — religious, moral and folk. The stateable frame around them is institutional and legal. The Greek Constitution names the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ as η επικρατούσα θρησκεία, the prevailing religion, while guaranteeing freedom of religious conscience; the Church of Greece is η Εκκλησία της Ελλάδος; the monastic republic of Mount Athos, το Άγιο Όρος, has its own constitutionally recognised status. Civil marriage, ο πολιτικός γάμος, was introduced in Greece in 1982. Those are facts. What proportion of Greeks believe what, and how deeply, is measured by surveys whose results differ and change, and belongs behind σύμφωνα με έρευνες.
The genuinely interesting content of this aspect is the gap between practice and profession, and Greek writers describe it themselves. A great many customs whose origin is religious are observed by people who do not describe themselves as devout: name days, Easter, the blessing of a new house, the wearing of a cross. Greek has a vocabulary for this — η λαϊκή θρησκευτικότητα, popular religiosity; η τυπική τήρηση, formal observance; η εκκοσμίκευση, secularisation; η παράδοση ως ταυτότητα, tradition as identity rather than as faith. Folk belief runs alongside: το μάτι, the evil eye, and το ξεμάτιασμα, the ritual for removing it, are practised by many who would not call it religion at all. Describing that layering is the aspect; adjudicating it is not.
The debates worth knowing are public and dateable, and naming them is what makes an answer current rather than generic. The relationship between church and state has been argued about repeatedly, including proposals in 2018 and 2019 to revise the constitutional article and to change the status of clergy pay, none of which produced the change some expected. Religious education in schools, the presence of religious symbols in public institutions, and the introduction of civil marriage for same-sex couples in February 2024, which the Church of Greece opposed, are all live. State the proposal, the date and who took which position. That is a complete treatment and it commits you to nothing.
The third strand is attitudes to tradition itself, distinct from belief, and here the honest finding is that Greek opinion contains several positions rather than two. Some regard tradition as identity to be defended, particularly where language, music or custom is felt to be under pressure. Some regard the preservation of custom as a positive cultural project without any religious content, which is what the πολιτιστικοί σύλλογοι, the cultural associations, largely do. Some regard the invocation of tradition as a brake on social change, particularly in arguments about gender and family. And some observe custom warmly while holding none of these views. A candidate who can lay out four positions and then say which they find most persuasive, with a reason, is writing at the top of the AO4 band.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section B: reading a reflective passage on custom and belief

Read as in Paper 1 Section B and answer in Greek. Οι απόψεις των Ελλήνων για την παράδοση δεν χωρίζονται εύκολα σε δύο στρατόπεδα. Ο ίδιος άνθρωπος μπορεί να θεωρεί τον εκκλησιασμό υποχρέωση της οικογένειας και ταυτόχρονα να μη δηλώνει ιδιαίτερα θρησκευόμενος. Το έθιμο, δηλαδή, επιβιώνει συχνά αφού πάψει να στηρίζεται στην πίστη που το γέννησε.

  1. 01Read the opening as a refusal, because that is what it is

    δεν χωρίζονται εύκολα σε δύο στρατόπεδα. Χωρίζομαι σε is to be divided into; το στρατόπεδο is literally a camp and here a faction. The writer is refusing a binary before offering anything, which tells you the paragraph will describe a middle case. Any question of the form Ποια θέση απορρίπτει ο συγγραφέας; is answered by this sentence, and answering it with a summary of the whole paragraph would be wrong.

  2. 02Parse the double subjunctive, and the negative that goes with it

    μπορεί να θεωρεί τον εκκλησιασμό υποχρέωση … και ταυτόχρονα να μη δηλώνει ιδιαίτερα θρησκευόμενος. Μπορεί να governs two subjunctives joined by και. Θεωρώ takes a double accusative — τον εκκλησιασμό, churchgoing, as object and υποχρέωση as predicate. The second subjunctive is negated with μη, not δεν: after να the negative is always μη or μην, and using δεν there is a straightforward error that an examiner will mark. Θρησκευόμενος is a mediopassive present participle used as an adjective, religious or observant.

  3. 03Read the last sentence, which is the thesis, and note αφού

    Το έθιμο, δηλαδή, επιβιώνει συχνά αφού πάψει να στηρίζεται στην πίστη που το γέννησε. Δηλαδή, that is to say, marks the sentence as the writer's restatement of the point. Αφού here is after in a temporal sense and takes the perfective subjunctive πάψει, from παύω, ceases. Στηρίζομαι σε is to rest on. Που το γέννησε is a relative clause with the resumptive το for the faith's object, the custom. The thesis is therefore that custom outlives the belief that produced it — a claim about survival, not about hypocrisy, and reading it as an accusation would misrepresent the source.

  4. 04Write the answer in Greek, keeping the writer's distinction

    For Ποιο είναι το κεντρικό επιχείρημα του συγγραφέα;, a strong answer is: Ο συγγραφέας υποστηρίζει ότι τα έθιμα συχνά διατηρούνται και όταν πάψουν να έχουν θρησκευτικό περιεχόμενο για όσους τα τηρούν, και ότι επομένως δεν μπορεί κανείς να συμπεράνει την πίστη ενός ανθρώπου από τις συνήθειές του. Two things are being done there: διατηρούνται substitutes for επιβιώνει, and the second clause draws the consequence the writer implies but does not state, which is what an examiner means by inference rather than lifting.

Result: Model answer in Greek: Ο συγγραφέας υποστηρίζει ότι τα έθιμα συχνά διατηρούνται και όταν πάψουν να έχουν θρησκευτικό περιεχόμενο για όσους τα τηρούν, και ότι επομένως δεν μπορεί κανείς να συμπεράνει την πίστη ενός ανθρώπου από τις συνήθειές του.

Exam focus

  • Institutional and legal facts are stateable: the constitutional wording, the Church of Greece, Mount Athos, civil marriage from 1982 (AO4).
  • What Greeks believe is survey material. Attribute it, always.
  • Λαϊκή θρησκευτικότητα, τυπική τήρηση, εκκοσμίκευση, το μάτι — the vocabulary of the gap between practice and profession.
  • Set out four positions on tradition, not two, and then commit with a reason.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing that Greeks are very religious, or that Greece has become secular. Both are unattributed claims about millions of people.
  • Confusing η θρησκεία, religion, with η πίστη, faith, and with η εκκλησία, the church as institution or building.
  • Treating folk practice such as το μάτι as evidence about religious belief. Many practitioners would not describe it as religion.
  • Describing constitutional debates without their dates or their outcomes.

Active revision

Write 220 words in Greek on Η παράδοση στην Ελλάδα σήμερα: πίστη, ταυτότητα ή συνήθεια; Set out at least three distinct positions with the kind of person or organisation that holds each, include one dated institutional fact, and end by committing to the position you find most persuasive with a reason that is not simply that you agree with it.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 04

Ερευνητικό θέμα I: Το ρεμπέτικο — το ιστορικό πλαίσιο#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Δεύτερο Θέμα — Ερευνητικό θέμα: Το ρεμπέτικο, το ιστορικό πλαίσιοLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

Before the content, the planning warning that governs this whole research subject. The specification says the independent research must not relate to, or make reference to, either of the works studied for Paper 2. One of the five prescribed films, Ουζερί Τσιτσάνης, directed by Μανούσος Μανουσάκης and released in 2015, takes its title from a rebetiko composer and is built around that world. A student who chooses that film for Paper 2 cannot take Το ρεμπέτικο as their research subject, and a student set on the research subject should choose a different film or two literary texts. Because the specification also recommends deciding the research subject as early as possible in the year, this is a decision to make in the first term, and it is not visible from a quick reading of either list.
Το ρεμπέτικο is a body of urban Greek song that took shape in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the Greek-speaking cities of the eastern Mediterranean and then, decisively, in the ports and poor quarters of mainland Greece. Two strands are usually distinguished, and naming them accurately is the first thing a research candidate should be able to do. Το σμυρναίικο, the Smyrna style, carried the café-aman tradition of the Asia Minor cities, with violin, σαντούρι and a florid vocal line including the αμανές, the improvised lament. Το πειραιώτικο, the Piraeus style, is built on μπουζούκι and μπαγλαμάς, plainer, harder and associated with the harbour. The two met, and much of what is now called rebetiko is the result of that meeting.
The historical context that the aspect names is a sequence of shocks, and it can be dated. The Asia Minor catastrophe of 1922 and the compulsory exchange of populations agreed at Lausanne in 1923 brought a refugee population to Greece that changed the size and character of its cities within a few years, and the refugee quarters that grew around Piraeus, Athens and Thessaloniki are where much of this music was made and heard. From 1936 the Metaxas regime imposed censorship that bore directly on the repertoire: songs referring to hashish were suppressed and the oriental vocal style was discouraged, with the result that composers wrote differently rather than stopping. Then came the occupation of 1941 to 1944, with famine in Athens, and the civil conflict that followed. Each of those is a documented context and each left marks on the songs.
The last movement of the historical context is the one candidates most often omit, and it is what makes the subject a research subject rather than a history lesson. After the war, rebetiko moved towards the mainstream and became the root of το λαϊκό τραγούδι, popular song; from the 1960s onwards it was rediscovered, first by students and intellectuals and then more widely, as a heritage to be studied, reissued and performed; Ηλίας Πετρόπουλος published his collection Ρεμπέτικα τραγούδια in 1968, which was itself controversial; and in 2017 rebetiko was inscribed by UNESCO on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. A repertoire that had once been censored became, within a lifetime, an object of national heritage policy — and that arc is the most arguable thing in the whole subject.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section C: turning a chronology into an argument

The unseen Greek text argues that rebetiko is best understood as refugee music. The statement is: «Το ρεμπέτικο είναι πάνω απ' όλα μουσική των προσφύγων.» Plan a 270–320-word answer that uses your research and the text without simply agreeing.

  1. 01Test the statement against your own dated frame before you take a side

    The statement is partly true and usefully wrong, which is the best kind to answer. It is true that the refugee arrivals after 1922 and 1923 transformed the cities where the music was made and brought the Smyrna tradition with them. It is wrong in that the Piraeus style had roots in the mainland ports before that, and in that much of the repertoire's subject matter — prison, hashish, poverty, love, death — is urban and marginal rather than specifically refugee. A defensible opening: Η δήλωση φωτίζει μια πραγματική πλευρά του ρεμπέτικου, αλλά την ταυτίζει με ένα μόνο από τα ρεύματά του.

  2. 02Deploy the two strands as evidence, not as background

    Το σμυρναίικο ρεύμα μεταφέρθηκε πράγματι από τους πρόσφυγες και έφερε μαζί του το βιολί, το σαντούρι και τον αμανέ. Το πειραιώτικο, όμως, στηρίχθηκε στο μπουζούκι και στον μπαγλαμά και συνδέθηκε με το λιμάνι και τη φυλακή. Two sentences, and the statement has already been half refuted from research rather than from opinion. Μεταφέρθηκε and στηρίχθηκε are both simple past passives, which is free AO3 range in a paragraph that needed those verbs anyway.

  3. 03Bring in the text where AO2 can see it, and then go beyond

    AO2 is 10 marks for using the unseen text. Cite it and then extend: Το κείμενο υπενθυμίζει σωστά ότι οι προσφυγικές συνοικίες γύρω από τον Πειραιά υπήρξαν το κύριο περιβάλλον του είδους. Θα πρόσθετα ότι το ίδιο περιβάλλον ήταν και το φτωχότερο της χώρας, και ότι η θεματολογία των τραγουδιών αφορά τη φτώχεια τουλάχιστον όσο και την προσφυγιά. Θα πρόσθετα, I would add, is a conditional and a courteous way of exceeding a source.

  4. 04Cover the remaining two aspects inside the argument

    A research candidate must cover all three aspects, so the artists and the subject matter have to appear even in an answer about historical context. Do it as evidence: Ο Μάρκος Βαμβακάρης, από τη Σύρο, δεν ήταν πρόσφυγας· η Ρόζα Εσκενάζυ και η Ρίτα Αμπατζή ανήκαν στην ανατολική παράδοση· ο Βασίλης Τσιτσάνης, από τα Τρίκαλα, έγραψε μέσα στην Κατοχή. Three names, three different relationships to the statement, and the aspect is covered without a list.

  5. 05Close with the arc, and audit the three grids

    Συμπερασματικά, το ρεμπέτικο είναι μουσική της πόλης και της φτώχειας, στην οποία η προσφυγιά υπήρξε καθοριστική αλλά όχι αποκλειστική συνιστώσα· η ένταξή του το 2017 στον κατάλογο άυλης πολιτιστικής κληρονομιάς της UNESCO δείχνει πόσο άλλαξε η θέση του, από λογοκριμένο ρεπερτόριο σε εθνική κληρονομιά. Then audit: AO4 wants perceptive ideas from research with focus maintained; AO2 wants the text used; AO3 wants range and accuracy — count your passives, your subjunctives and your connectives before you stop.

Result: Opening: Η δήλωση φωτίζει μια πραγματική πλευρά του ρεμπέτικου, αλλά την ταυτίζει με ένα μόνο από τα ρεύματά του. Closing: Συμπερασματικά, το ρεμπέτικο είναι μουσική της πόλης και της φτώχειας, στην οποία η προσφυγιά υπήρξε καθοριστική αλλά όχι αποκλειστική συνιστώσα· η ένταξή του το 2017 στον κατάλογο άυλης πολιτιστικής κληρονομιάς της UNESCO δείχνει πόσο άλλαξε η θέση του, από λογοκριμένο ρεπερτόριο σε εθνική κληρονομιά.

Exam focus

  • The Paper 2 collision is real: Ουζερί Τσιτσάνης and Το ρεμπέτικο cannot both be chosen. Decide in the first term.
  • Distinguish το σμυρναίικο from το πειραιώτικο, and say how they met (AO4).
  • The context is a dated sequence — 1922 and 1923, censorship from 1936, occupation 1941 to 1944, the post-war shift, the revival, UNESCO in 2017.
  • The arc from censored repertoire to national heritage is the subject's most arguable claim. Use it.

Typical mistakes

  • Producing a refugee figure for 1922 and 1923 from memory. Describe the transformation of the cities instead, or attribute the estimate.
  • Calling rebetiko Greek blues without saying whose comparison it is. It is a critics' analogy, not a definition.
  • Saying censorship killed rebetiko. It changed what was written and recorded; the repertoire continued.
  • Studying Ουζερί Τσιτσάνης for Paper 2 and then researching Το ρεμπέτικο, which the specification forbids.

Active revision

Write a 300-word plan in Greek for a Paper 1 Section C answer on Το ρεμπέτικο in which the historical context is not narrated but used: each dated event must be attached to a claim about the songs. Then check that all three aspects — context, subject matter and setting, and named artists — appear, since a research candidate must cover all three.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 05

Ερευνητικό θέμα II: θεματολογία, πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9GK0 Δεύτερο Θέμα — Ερευνητικό θέμα: Το ρεμπέτικο, θεματολογία και πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες του ρεμπέτικουLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Το ρεμπέτικο: the three aspects in one frame

Ρεμπέτικο: πλαίσιο, θεματολογία, καλλιτέχνεςTable with 4 columns and 5 rows, Data: Period · Historical context · Characteristic subject matter · Names to know; Before 1922 · Greek-speaking cities of the eastern Mediterranean; the café-aman tradition · Love, exile, the port, the underworld · Το σμυρναίικο ρεύμα; early gramophone recording; 1922–1936 · Asia Minor catastrophe; the 1923 exchange; refugee quarters near Piraeus · Η προσφυγιά, poverty, prison, hashish, death · Μάρκος Βαμβακάρης, Γιώργος Μπάτης, Ανέστης Δελιάς; 1936–1945 · Censorship under the Metaxas regime; occupation and famine · Hunger, longing, love; hashish written out · Βασίλης Τσιτσάνης, Ρόζα Εσκενάζυ, Ρίτα Αμπατζή; 1946–1950s · Post-war reconstruction; the form moves towards λαϊκό song · Work, the neighbourhood, emigration, η ξενιτιά · Μαρίκα Νίνου, Σωτηρία Μπέλλου, Γιάννης Παπαϊωάννου; 1960s onward · Rediscovery, reissue and study; UNESCO listing in 2017 · Studied and performed as heritage · Ηλίας Πετρόπουλος, Ρεμπέτικα τραγούδια, 1968PERIODHISTORICAL CONTEXTCHARACTERISTIC SUBJECTMATTERNAMES TO KNOWBEFORE 1922Greek-speaking cities of theeastern Mediterranean; thecafé−aman traditionLove, exile, the port, theunderworldΤο σμυρναίικο ρεύμα; earlygramophone recording1922–1936Asia Minor catastrophe; the1923 exchange; refugeequarters near PiraeusΗ προσφυγιά, poverty,prison, hashish, deathΜάρκος Βαμβακάρης, ΓιώργοςΜπάτης, Ανέστης Δελιάς1936–1945Censorship under the Metaxasregime; occupation andfamineHunger, longing, love;hashish written outΒασίλης Τσιτσάνης, ΡόζαΕσκενάζυ, Ρίτα Αμπατζή1946–1950SPost-war reconstruction; theform moves towards λαϊκόsongWork, the neighbourhood,emigration, η ξενιτιάΜαρίκα Νίνου, ΣωτηρίαΜπέλλου, Γιάννης Παπαϊωάννου1960S ONWARDRediscovery, reissue andstudy; UNESCO listing in2017Studied and performed asheritageΗλίας Πετρόπουλος, Ρεμπέτικατραγούδια, 1968
Fig. 1The research subject has three aspects — historical context, subject matter and cultural setting, and famous artists — and a candidate must cover all three. Laying them out period by period shows how they connect: the context explains what the songs are about, and the artists are the people who made that connection. Names are given as they are spelled in Greek. Nothing here is a quotation, and no lyric should ever be invented to support a claim.

Key points

Θεματολογία means the range of subject matter a body of work treats, and rebetiko's is narrow, repeated and specific, which is why it can be written about precisely. The recurring subjects are η ξενιτιά, the condition of being away from home, which is not the same as emigration and has no English word; η προσφυγιά, the state of being a refugee; η φτώχεια and η ανεργία; η φυλακή, prison, and the police; ο τεκές, the hashish den, and the substance itself, both of which were later censored out of the recorded repertoire; ο έρωτας, usually unhappy; η αρρώστια, especially tuberculosis; ο θάνατος and ο Χάρος, death personified; and η μάνα, the mother, as the one unambiguous loyalty. Το πολιτιστικό πλαίσιο around them is the μάγκας, a figure with a code of dignity, dress and bearing, whose dance is το ζεϊμπέκικο, danced alone.
The second aspect also asks for πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, the cultural setting, and that means the places and the technology as much as the ideas. The music was played in the ουζερί and the ταβέρνα and the τεκές; the recording industry, which reached Greece early, meant that a song written for a room could be heard nationally, and the 78 rpm record is part of why the repertoire survived; the μπουζούκι moved from being an instrument associated with the margins to being the emblematic sound of Greek popular music within thirty years; and after the war the same musicians played in larger venues to a broader audience. Naming the venue, the instrument and the medium in Greek is what a research candidate has that a general reader does not.
The third aspect is διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες and it must be covered properly, with names spelled correctly. Μάρκος Βαμβακάρης, from Syros, is the central figure of the Piraeus style; he played and recorded with Γιώργος Μπάτης, Ανέστης Δελιάς and Στράτος Παγιουμτζής in the group known as η Τετράς η ξακουστή του Πειραιώς. Βασίλης Τσιτσάνης is the composer who carried the form towards popular song and wrote during the occupation. Among the women, Ρόζα Εσκενάζυ and Ρίτα Αμπατζή belong to the Smyrna tradition and recorded prolifically; Μαρίκα Νίνου sang with Tsitsanis; Σωτηρία Μπέλλου became the best-known voice of the post-war repertoire and of its revival. Γιάννης Παπαϊωάννου and Απόστολος Χατζηχρήστος are two more composers a research candidate should know.
Now the honesty rule, which matters more here than anywhere else in this subject because song lyrics are quotable and therefore tempting. Do not invent a lyric. Do not attribute a line to a composer unless you have it in front of you. If you have studied a song, describe it the way the mark scheme actually rewards evidence — name it, say what happens in it, and say what it demonstrates: this song is about X, the singer says that Y, and that is evidence for the claim that Z. If you have not studied it, name the composer, the period and the documented subject matter, and argue from those, which is entirely legitimate. An examiner cannot check a paraphrase against a recording, but a fabricated quotation attributed to Vamvakaris is a false statement about a real person, and that is the line.
Worked example

Paper 2 Section A: translating a culturally loaded English passage into Greek

Translate into Greek for the 20-mark points-based scheme. Every August, thousands of people who live abroad return to the village where their grandparents were born. There is a festival with live music, the square fills up, and by two in the morning nobody remembers who first suggested going home.

  1. 01Decide the culture words before you translate a single clause

    Two words in this passage have a right answer and a wrong one. Festival here is a village celebration with live music, so it is πανηγύρι, not φεστιβάλ; choosing φεστιβάλ turns a saint's day into a ticketed arts programme and an examiner will see it. Village is το χωριό, straightforwardly. A third decision is quieter: return is επιστρέφω, but Greek would as naturally say γυρίζουν πίσω; either is markable, and the register of the passage suits the plainer verb. Make these choices first, because they determine the shape of the sentences.

  2. 02Sentence 1 — a bare accusative of time and a relative of place

    Κάθε Αύγουστο χιλιάδες άνθρωποι που ζουν στο εξωτερικό επιστρέφουν στο χωριό όπου γεννήθηκαν οι παππούδες τους. Κάθε Αύγουστο is a bare accusative, every August, with no preposition. Χιλιάδες takes a plural noun in apposition, χιλιάδες άνθρωποι, and stays feminine itself although the noun is masculine. Where their grandparents were born is a relative of place, so όπου rather than που, and γεννήθηκαν is the simple past passive of γεννώ. Τους is the possessive weak pronoun following its noun.

  3. 03Sentence 2 — the impersonal γίνεται, which English has no word for

    Γίνεται πανηγύρι με ζωντανή μουσική, η πλατεία γεμίζει. English there is a festival wants an existential; Greek says γίνεται πανηγύρι, literally a festival happens, and that impersonal use of γίνομαι is the idiomatic solution. Υπάρχει would be wrong here because it states existence rather than occurrence. Ζωντανή μουσική is live music, with ζωντανός agreeing as feminine. Η πλατεία γεμίζει reuses the intransitive γεμίζω from earlier in this topic, and needs no object.

  4. 04Sentence 3 — the time expression, negative concord, and a subjunctive complement

    και κατά τις δύο τα ξημερώματα κανείς δεν θυμάται ποιος πρότεινε πρώτος να πάνε σπίτι. Κατά τις δύο is around two o'clock, with the feminine plural article standing for ώρες; τα ξημερώματα is the small hours, the natural Greek for that part of the night. Κανείς δεν θυμάται is negative concord — Greek requires the δεν even with κανείς. Ποιος πρότεινε πρώτος is an embedded question with the simple past of προτείνω, and πρώτος agrees with ποιος as a predicative adjective, meaning who was first to suggest. Να πάνε σπίτι is the subjunctive complement of προτείνω, and σπίτι needs no preposition or article in this idiom.

  5. 05Run the case-first check the examiner guidance recommends

    The guidance says explicitly that gender and adjectival agreement errors are tolerated as long as they do not include a mismatch of cases. So check the cases first and separately: στο εξωτερικό, στο χωριό, με ζωντανή μουσική, κατά τις δύο — four prepositional phrases, four accusatives. Then check verbs: ζουν, επιστρέφουν, γεννήθηκαν, γίνεται, γεμίζει, θυμάται, πρότεινε, πάνε — eight, in five different tenses and two voices. Only then read for sense.

Result: Κάθε Αύγουστο χιλιάδες άνθρωποι που ζουν στο εξωτερικό επιστρέφουν στο χωριό όπου γεννήθηκαν οι παππούδες τους. Γίνεται πανηγύρι με ζωντανή μουσική, η πλατεία γεμίζει, και κατά τις δύο τα ξημερώματα κανείς δεν θυμάται ποιος πρότεινε πρώτος να πάνε σπίτι.

Exam focus

  • Η ξενιτιά and η προσφυγιά are distinct and neither has an English equivalent. Use them untranslated with a gloss (AO4).
  • Cover all three aspects: context, subject matter and setting, named artists. A research candidate is required to.
  • Ο μάγκας and το ζεϊμπέκικο are the cultural setting, not decoration. Explain the code, not just the word.
  • Never invent a lyric. Name a song, say what happens in it, say what it demonstrates.

Typical mistakes

  • Writing only about the men. Ρόζα Εσκενάζυ, Ρίτα Αμπατζή, Μαρίκα Νίνου and Σωτηρία Μπέλλου are central, not supplementary.
  • Translating η ξενιτιά as emigration, which loses the whole meaning of the word.
  • Attributing a fabricated lyric to a named composer.
  • Presenting hashish songs as the whole repertoire. They are one strand, and one that was censored.

Active revision

Choose three rebetiko songs you have actually heard and write 200 words in Greek in which each is named, its subject matter described, and each is attached to one of the three aspects of the research subject. Use no quotation you cannot verify, and use η ξενιτιά or η προσφυγιά correctly at least once.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification (Pearson Edexcel) · GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages (Department for Education)

Contents

Section -- / 05

    • 01Τοπικές γιορτές: the calendar, the πανηγύρι, and how to write about a custom◐
    • 02Παραδοσιακοί τρόποι αναψυχής και ψυχαγωγίας◐
    • 03Απόψεις σχετικά με την παράδοση και τα πιστεύω●
    • 04Ερευνητικό θέμα I: Το ρεμπέτικο — το ιστορικό πλαίσιο●
    • 05Ερευνητικό θέμα II: θεματολογία, πολιτιστικά συμφραζόμενα, διάσημοι καλλιτέχνες●

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From notes into training

Δεύτερο Θέμα II: Παράδοση, ήθη και έθιμα — and the research subject Το ρεμπέτικο

Reinforce this topic with matching tasks from the question bank.

~36
min
4
Competencies
Practise

References & sources

Sources

Pearson Edexcel

  • Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Greek (9GK0) specification

Department for Education

  • GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

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