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Notes/Russian/The last years of the USSR: Перестройка, гласность и 1991 год
Notes · RussianUK · A-Levels

The last years of the USSR: Перестройка, гласность и 1991 год

This topic carries the whole of Edexcel's Тема 4, Последние годы СССР — М.С. Горбачёв (1985–1991), across all three of its sub-themes: Перестройка (что вызвало перестройку; экономические изменения; исходы), Гласность (что вызвало гласность; общественные изменения; исходы) and 1991 год (проблемы для СССР к началу 1991 г.; путч в августе; распад СССР). Тема 4 is set in the context of Russia only, and a political-life slot carries it because the platform's topic ids contain no history slot. This is recent and contested history, and the notes treat it the way an examiner wants it treated: dates, laws and documented events are stated plainly; every interpretation is attributed to somebody and named as an interpretation; the live scholarly disagreements — whether the system was reformable, whether glasnost released nationalist mobilisation or produced it, whether the dissolution was inevitable — are presented as disagreements rather than settled; the sharp difference between how the period is remembered inside Russia and outside it is described rather than adjudicated; and no statistic and no quotation is invented anywhere. Alongside the history the topic teaches the Russian this material needs, which is unusually demanding: indirect questions with ли, чтобы clauses of purpose, participles and reflexive passives, and the vocabulary of reform, argument and outcome.

5 sections·~37 min reading time·4 competencies·Level Advanced 5

T·0666 / 13
Exam profile
AO1 · Understand and respond, in speech and in writing, to spoken Russian about the last Soviet yearsAO2 · Understand and respond, in speech and in writing, to written Russian of historical and journalistic registerAO3 · Manipulate Russian accurately, using a range of lexis and structure to narrate, explain and evaluateAO4 · Show knowledge and understanding of, and respond critically to, the reforms of 1985 to 1991 and their contested legacy
Operators:описатьобъяснитьпроанализироватьоценитьсравнитьобосноватьперевести

basic level

At first-year standard the expectation is an accurate, dated narrative with a clear personal response: who Gorbachev was, what перестройка and гласность were intended to do, what happened in August and December 1991, and what the student thinks about it, expressed with secure past tenses, correct aspect in narration, and correct case in dates and in expressions of time.

higher level

The full A-Level expects argument rather than chronicle, and attribution rather than assertion. Was the Soviet system reformable, and who says so? Did glasnost release national movements that already existed or help create them? Was the dissolution of the Union the working out of long contradictions or the outcome of a few weeks of specific decisions? Answers must name the positions, attach them to somebody, weigh them and conclude, using indirect questions with ли, чтобы clauses, participles and reflexive passives, and vocabulary precise enough to distinguish a cause from a pretext.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 5 sections▾
  1. The last years of the USSR: Перестройка, гласность и 1991 год
    • 01Что вызвало перестройку: the situation of 1985 and the argument about it●
    • 02Экономические изменения и их исходы: the reform that produced neither plan nor market●
    • 03Гласность: what it was for, what it released, and what it could not be stopped from doing●
    • 041991 год: the problems, the August coup and the dissolution●
    • 05Exam technique: turning a chronicle into an argument, and attributing what is disputed●
§ 01

Что вызвало перестройку: the situation of 1985 and the argument about it#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Тема 4 - Перестройка: что вызвало перестройкуLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

1985–1991: шесть лет одним взглядом

1985–1991Timeline from 1985 to 1991, 1985: Горбачёв — генсек, 1986: Чернобыль, 1987: закон о предприятии, 1988: закон о кооперации, 1989: Съезд депутатов, 1990: отмена статьи 6, 1991: путч и распад СССР, 1985–1991: перестройка, 1986–1991: гласность19851991годперестройкагласность1985Горбачёв —генсек1986Чернобыль1987закон опредприятии1988закон окооперации1989Съезд депутатов1990отмена статьи 61991путч и распадСССР
Fig. 1The chronology this whole topic hangs on, one landmark per year. The two bands show how long each programme ran; the marked year is 1991, because almost every account of the period, whatever its interpretation, treats the August coup and the December agreements as the hinge on which everything else turned.

Key points

Start with the documented situation, because everything contested rests on it. By the first half of the 1980s Soviet economic growth had slowed markedly — the period is called застой, stagnation, a label applied retrospectively and itself a piece of interpretation. Defence spending was very high, the war in Afghanistan, begun in 1979, was continuing and costly, and the fall in world oil prices in the middle of the decade removed a major source of hard-currency earnings. The political leadership was also in crisis simply by age: Леонид Брежнев died in November 1982, Юрий Андропов in February 1984 and Константин Черненко in March 1985 — three General Secretaries in two and a half years. On 11 March 1985 the Central Committee elected Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв, the youngest member of the Politburo, as General Secretary.
What he announced first was not perestroika. The April 1985 plenum proclaimed ускорение, acceleration of social and economic development — a programme for making the existing system work better, not for replacing it. In May 1985 came the антиалкогольная кампания, the anti-alcohol campaign, which reduced consumption and mortality and simultaneously cut state revenue and created queues and illegal distilling; it is a small case study in exactly the difficulty the whole period presents, because it did what it intended and also did something else. Перестройка as a slogan, and гласность with it, came into general use from 1986 and 1987. The vocabulary of the period is worth having exact: реформа, преобразования, курс, замысел for the intention, исход and итог for the outcome, and последствия for the consequences.
Now the interpretation, and here the discipline is to attribute. There is a genuine and continuing scholarly disagreement about what perestroika was. Some historians argue that Gorbachev's project was a serious attempt to reform socialism from within, that its author believed the system was improvable, and that the problem lay in execution and sequencing. Others argue that the structural contradictions — a planned economy that could not be partially marketised, a multinational union held together by a single party — made the project unachievable on its own terms whatever the sequence. A third line stresses contingency: that outcomes turned on particular decisions taken by particular people under pressure. All three are held by serious scholars. Say so: единого мнения среди историков нет, and then take a position and defend it.
For the exam, prepare the causal question as a hierarchy rather than a list, because a hierarchy is an argument. Причин было несколько, но они не равны по весу: замедление экономического роста было условием, смена поколения в руководстве — поводом, а решение самого Горбачёва начать реформы — собственно причиной. That sentence distinguishes условие, повод and причина — condition, occasion and cause — which is exactly the analytical vocabulary this sub-theme needs, and it is far more impressive than any number of dates. Learn the three words together, because in Russian as in English the difference between a pretext and a cause is where historical argument lives.
Worked example

Paper 1 Section C: translation into English, worked sentence by sentence

Translate into English. К середине восьмидесятых советская экономика росла всё медленнее, а расходы на оборону и на войну в Афганистане оставались огромными. За два с половиной года умерли три генеральных секретаря подряд, и в марте 1985 года партию возглавил самый молодой член Политбюро — Михаил Горбачёв. Он не собирался разрушать систему: объявленный им курс назывался ускорением и предполагал, что социализм можно улучшить. Историки до сих пор спорят о том, была ли эта задача выполнимой в принципе.

  1. 01К середине восьмидесятых советская экономика росла всё медленнее

    К plus the dative expresses by a point in time: by the middle of the eighties. Восьмидесятых is the genitive plural of the ordinal used as a noun for the decade. Всё plus a comparative means ever more, progressively more — всё медленнее, ever more slowly — and it is a construction English has to render with an adverb phrase. Росла is imperfective past because the sentence describes a process rather than a result.

  2. 02а расходы на оборону и на войну в Афганистане оставались огромными

    А here contrasts rather than adds — while, whereas — and the choice between а, но and и should always be read. Расходы на takes на plus the accusative. Оставаться takes a predicate instrumental, огромными, which agrees with расходы: remained enormous. Note that Afghanistan is в Афганистане with the prepositional, not на.

  3. 03За два с половиной года умерли три генеральных секретаря подряд

    За plus the accusative for a period within which. Два с половиной года: after the numeral два the noun takes the genitive singular, года, and adding с половиной does not change that. Три генеральных секретаря is the same rule with an adjective: after два, три and четыре the noun is genitive singular and the adjective is genitive plural — генеральных секретаря — which looks wrong to a learner and is exactly right. Подряд is one after another, in succession.

  4. 04и в марте 1985 года партию возглавил самый молодой член Политбюро — Михаил Горбачёв

    В марте takes the prepositional for a month; 1985 года is the genitive of the year, which follows the month. The word order is object first, verb second, subject last: партию возглавил … член Политбюро. English will usually reverse it or use a passive — the party was taken over by, or the youngest member of the Politburo took over the party — and either earns the mark provided you saw which noun is the subject. Возглавить takes the accusative.

  5. 05объявленный им курс назывался ускорением и предполагал, что социализм можно улучшить

    Объявленный is a long-form past passive participle from объявить, agreeing with курс, with its agent in the instrumental: им, by him. English needs a relative clause: the course he proclaimed. Называться takes a predicate instrumental, ускорением. Предполагал here means assumed or presupposed, not proposed. Можно улучшить is the impersonal modal with a perfective infinitive: could be improved.

  6. 06Историки до сих пор спорят о том, была ли эта задача выполнимой в принципе

    До сих пор is still, to this day. Спорить о том, is the frame that introduces the disputed content. Была ли is an indirect question with the particle ли, which is the Russian equivalent of whether and which the grammar list names explicitly; ли comes second, after the word being questioned, and there is no inversion. Выполнимой is a predicate instrumental after была. В принципе is in principle, and it is doing important work: the historians are arguing not about execution but about possibility.

Result: By the middle of the eighties the Soviet economy was growing ever more slowly, while spending on defence and on the war in Afghanistan remained enormous. Within two and a half years three General Secretaries died one after another, and in March 1985 the party was taken over by the youngest member of the Politburo, Mikhail Gorbachev. He had no intention of destroying the system: the course he proclaimed was called acceleration and assumed that socialism could be improved. Historians still argue about whether that task was achievable in principle.

Exam focus

  • Separate условие, повод and причина; ranking causes is an argument, listing them is not (AO4).
  • Attribute every interpretation of what perestroika was, and name the disagreement as a disagreement (AO4).
  • Anchor on the dates of 1982, 1984 and 1985 and on the April 1985 plenum; they are checkable and specific (AO4).

Typical mistakes

  • Saying that Gorbachev came to power intending to end the Soviet Union. What was announced in 1985 was ускорение, and the claim about intentions is contested; report it, do not assert it.
  • Using застой as a neutral description. It is a retrospective evaluative label and should be marked as one: период, который позже назвали застоем.
  • Writing Горбачёв without ё. The name is spelled Горбачёв and the letter carries the stress.
  • Treating перестройка and ускорение as the same programme. Ускорение came first, in 1985, and aimed at making the existing system work better.

Active revision

Напишите по-русски 140 слов о причинах перестройки. Разделите условия, поводы и собственно причины, приведите не менее трёх дат и закончите указанием на то, что среди историков нет единого мнения, с кратким изложением двух позиций.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Russian (9RU0) specification (Pearson Edexcel)

§ 02

Экономические изменения и их исходы: the reform that produced neither plan nor market#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Тема 4 - Перестройка: экономические изменения; исходыLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

Three measures carry the economic story and all three are dated laws, which makes them ideal evidence. The Закон о государственном предприятии, adopted in 1987 and in force from the beginning of 1988, gave state enterprises substantially more autonomy over their output, their prices and their earnings while leaving the planning apparatus in place above them. The Закон о кооперации of 1988 legalised cooperatives, which in practice meant private businesses under a socialist name, and it is where the first legal private commerce in fifty years appeared. Alongside them ran хозрасчёт, self-financing, and the language of аренда and индивидуальная трудовая деятельность. In 1990 a radical marketising plan known as программа «500 дней», associated with Станислав Шаталин and Григорий Явлинский, was drawn up and then not adopted, a decision that historians treat as one of the period's turning points.
The outcome is the part that must be explained rather than described. Enterprises gained the freedom to raise wages and to choose what to produce, but the state continued to fix many prices and to issue plan targets, so the economy acquired the incentives of a market without its price signals and kept the obligations of a plan without its control. Incomes rose faster than the supply of goods. The visible result was дефицит — shortage — with очереди, queues, and by 1990 and 1991 талоны, ration coupons, for basic products in many cities. Say it in Russian and the mechanism does the work: экономика оказалась ни плановой, ни рыночной; деньги у людей были, а купить было нечего.
The interpretive question here is a real one and should be presented as such: was the failure in the design or in the execution? One position holds that a partial marketisation of a planned economy is inherently unstable and that the reforms could not have worked in that sequence — the comparison usually drawn is with the different sequencing adopted in China. Another holds that the design was defensible but that implementation was hesitant, that the political leadership retreated at each point of resistance, and that the rejection of the 500-days programme in 1990 is the clearest instance. A third points to the external shock of low oil prices and rising foreign debt. Historians hold all three; the strongest answer names them and then argues for a weighting rather than pretending to a verdict.
One consequence matters more than any other for the theme as a whole, and it belongs here: the economic experience is what turned public opinion against perestroika. For most people the reforms were not a debate about sequencing; they were empty shelves and a coupon for sugar. That fact is what explains the durable difference between how Gorbachev is regarded inside Russia, where the period is widely associated with shortage, inflation and the loss of a state, and outside it, where he is widely credited with ending the Cold War peacefully and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990. Describe both perceptions and attribute both; do not adjudicate between them. It is one of the most reliably rewarding AO4 points in the entire specification.
Worked example

From a bare fact to a paragraph of argued Russian

You have one fact: by 1990 ordinary goods were scarce in Soviet shops and ration coupons had appeared in many cities. Build it into a paragraph that explains the mechanism and reports the disagreement about it.

  1. 01State the fact with the right case after the negation

    К 1990 году в советских магазинах не хватало самых обычных товаров, а во многих городах ввели талоны. Не хватать is impersonal and takes the genitive of the thing lacking: не хватало товаров. Ввели is a third-person-plural impersonal, avoiding an agent that would need to be identified. К 1990 году is к plus the dative for by that point.

  2. 02Refuse the easy explanation before giving the real one

    Объяснять это одной некомпетентностью реформаторов было бы слишком просто. Объяснять что-либо чем-либо puts the explanation in the instrumental — некомпетентностью — and одной here means merely, by that alone. Было бы слишком просто is the conditional. Refusing a simple explanation obliges you to supply a better one, which structures the rest of the paragraph.

  3. 03Give the mechanism as a contradiction

    Предприятиям разрешили самим устанавливать цены и распоряжаться прибылью, но плановые поставки при этом сохранились, и экономика оказалась ни плановой, ни рыночной. Разрешить takes a dative of the person permitted and an infinitive. Распоряжаться takes the instrumental, прибылью. Оказаться takes a predicate instrumental, and ни … , ни … coordinates two of them. The whole mechanism is in one sentence, which is what makes it usable in speech.

  4. 04Add the second half of the mechanism with an idiom

    Кроме того, доходы населения росли быстрее, чем производство товаров, — деньги были, купить было нечего. Быстрее, чем is a comparative with a clause. Купить было нечего uses the negative pronoun нечего with an infinitive and an implied dative — there was nothing to buy — which is precisely the construction the grammar list names under negation with dative and infinitive. It is short, idiomatic and unmistakably native.

  5. 05Close by reporting the disagreement, and by saying what is not disputed

    Историки спорят, была ли проблема в самом замысле реформы или в том, что её проводили половинчато; бесспорно лишь то, что дефицит стал для миллионов людей главным аргументом против перестройки. Была ли is an indirect question with ли. Проводили is another impersonal third-person plural. Ending on what is not disputed — бесспорно лишь то, что — is a genuinely strong rhetorical move, because it concedes the argument and still lands a conclusion.

Result: К 1990 году в советских магазинах не хватало самых обычных товаров, а во многих городах ввели талоны. Объяснять это одной некомпетентностью реформаторов было бы слишком просто. Предприятиям разрешили самим устанавливать цены и распоряжаться прибылью, но плановые поставки при этом сохранились, и экономика оказалась ни плановой, ни рыночной. Кроме того, доходы населения росли быстрее, чем производство товаров, — деньги были, купить было нечего. Историки спорят, была ли проблема в самом замысле реформы или в том, что её проводили половинчато; бесспорно лишь то, что дефицит стал для миллионов людей главным аргументом против перестройки.

Exam focus

  • Use the three dated laws — 1987, 1988 and the rejected 1990 programme — as your evidence base for the whole economic story (AO4).
  • Explain the mechanism in one sentence: incentives without prices, obligations without control (AO4).
  • Present the difference between domestic and foreign perceptions of Gorbachev as a documented contrast, not as a verdict (AO4).

Typical mistakes

  • Calling the cooperatives частные предприятия without qualification. They were legally кооперативы, and the name is part of the history.
  • Saying that perestroika introduced a market economy. It did not; the marketising programme of 1990 was not adopted and the system that emerged was neither planned nor market.
  • Writing не хватало товары. Не хватать takes the genitive: не хватало товаров, не хватает времени.
  • Explaining the shortages by blaming individuals. Name the mechanism first, then attribute any judgement about responsibility.

Active revision

Напишите по-русски 150 слов об экономических итогах перестройки. Назовите два закона с датами, объясните механизм дефицита одним предложением, изложите две позиции историков о причинах неудачи и закончите замечанием о том, почему именно экономика определила отношение людей к реформам.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

§ 03

Гласность: what it was for, what it released, and what it could not be stopped from doing#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Тема 4 - Гласность: что вызвало гласность; общественные изменения; исходыLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

Гласность is usually translated as openness and is better understood as publicity in the older English sense: making things public. It was not conceived as freedom of speech and it was not a legal right. It was permission — permission to discuss shortcomings so that they could be corrected, granted from above as an instrument of the economic programme, on the reasoning that problems that could not be named could not be fixed. The word itself is old, with a nineteenth-century legal history, and Gorbachev's use of it was deliberate. That origin explains its trajectory: a permission has no defined limit, and each thing that was permitted made the next thing harder to refuse.
The turning point that almost every account identifies is the Chernobyl disaster of 26 April 1986. The initial official handling of the accident — delay and minimisation — collided with a policy of openness that had just been announced, and the collision was visible to everyone. From 1986 and 1987 the changes came quickly. Андрей Сахаров was allowed to return to Moscow from internal exile in Gorky in December 1986. Periodicals such as «Огонёк» and «Московские новости» became genuinely widely read for the first time in decades. Literature that had been unpublishable appeared: Doctor Zhivago in 1988, The Gulag Archipelago in 1989. The society «Мемориал» was founded in 1989 to investigate and commemorate political repression. And in 1989 the sessions of the newly elected Съезд народных депутатов were broadcast live, so that millions of people followed a real political argument for the first time in their lives.
The outcomes divide into two, and both must be stated. The first is that гласность produced a genuine and rapid transformation of public knowledge, above all about the Soviet past, and that this transformation was irreversible in the sense that what had been read could not be unread. The second is that the same openness allowed the expression of grievances that the union structure had no mechanism to resolve, above all national ones: movements in the Baltic republics, in the Caucasus and elsewhere moved from cultural demands to political ones within a few years. Here the historiographical disagreement is sharp and must be attributed: some historians argue that glasnost released national movements that already existed and had simply been suppressed; others argue that the new public sphere itself helped shape and radicalise them. Both positions are held seriously, and an answer that names both is stronger than one that chooses without argument.
The formal political consequence came in March 1990, when Article 6 of the Soviet constitution, which guaranteed the leading role of the Communist Party, was removed, and Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR by the Congress. Note the order of events, because it is the argument: openness preceded political pluralism rather than following it. For an examination answer, that ordering is the single most useful observation available: гласность задумывалась как средство, а стала условием — она была инструментом экономической реформы, а превратилась в основание политической. Задумываться как and превратиться в plus the accusative are the two verbs that carry it.
Worked example

Paper 2 Section A: translation into Russian, with every decision justified

Translate into Russian. Glasnost was not conceived as freedom of speech. It began as permission to discuss shortcomings so that they could be corrected, and after the Chernobyl disaster of April 1986 it became impossible to stop. By 1989, when the sessions of the Congress of People's Deputies were being broadcast live, millions of people were following politics for the first time.

  1. 01Glasnost was not conceived as freedom of speech

    Гласность задумывалась не как свобода слова. Задумываться is a reflexive verb doing the work of an English passive, which the grammar list names as the preferred way of avoiding a passive construction; the imperfective задумывалась is right because the sentence describes the intention behind a policy rather than a single completed act of conceiving. Как plus the nominative is used for as in the sense of in the capacity of. The negation attaches to как, not to the verb: не как свобода слова, not as freedom of speech.

  2. 02It began as permission to discuss shortcomings

    Она началась как разрешение обсуждать недостатки. Начаться is the reflexive intransitive — it began — as against начать, which needs an object. Разрешение takes a bare infinitive after it: разрешение обсуждать, permission to discuss. Обсуждать is imperfective because it names an activity rather than a single act of discussion. Недостатки, shortcomings or defects, is the period's own word.

  3. 03so that they could be corrected

    чтобы их можно было исправить. This is the construction to get right. Чтобы expressing purpose with a different subject from the main clause requires the past tense form after it — было — and not an infinitive; чтобы их можно исправить would be wrong. Можно было исправить is the impersonal modal in the past. Their is их, the accusative of они, standing before the modal for emphasis. The grammar list names further uses of чтобы and бы explicitly, and this is one of the two that matter most.

  4. 04and after the Chernobyl disaster of April 1986 it became impossible to stop

    а после чернобыльской катастрофы в апреле 1986 года остановить её стало невозможно. После takes the genitive. The adjective чернобыльской agrees in the genitive feminine. В апреле is the prepositional for the month, followed by 1986 года in the genitive. Стало невозможно plus an infinitive is the impersonal construction; putting остановить её at the front of the clause emphasises what could not be done, which is the point of the sentence.

  5. 05By 1989, when the sessions of the Congress of People's Deputies were being broadcast live

    К 1989 году, когда заседания Съезда народных депутатов транслировались в прямом эфире. К plus the dative for by that year, with году in the dative. Съезда народных депутатов is a chain of genitives, each depending on the last, and the word order is fixed. Транслировались is again a reflexive passive, imperfective because the broadcasting was continuing. В прямом эфире is the fixed phrase for live on air.

  6. 06millions of people were following politics for the first time

    миллионы людей впервые следили за политикой. Миллионы takes the genitive plural, людей. Следить за takes the instrumental, политикой — and this is the right verb: смотреть политику would not be idiomatic Russian. Следили is imperfective, matching the English past continuous. Впервые is a single word for for the first time and is far better than в первый раз here.

Result: Гласность задумывалась не как свобода слова. Она началась как разрешение обсуждать недостатки, чтобы их можно было исправить, а после чернобыльской катастрофы в апреле 1986 года остановить её стало невозможно. К 1989 году, когда заседания Съезда народных депутатов транслировались в прямом эфире, миллионы людей впервые следили за политикой.

Exam focus

  • Define гласность as permission rather than as a right; the whole trajectory follows from that distinction (AO4).
  • Use Chernobyl in April 1986 as the documented turning point, and the live broadcasts of 1989 as the point of no return (AO4).
  • Attribute the disagreement about national movements: released, or shaped? Naming both positions is worth more than choosing one (AO4).

Typical mistakes

  • Translating гласность as freedom of speech in an analytical sentence. Свобода слова is a right; гласность was a policy of openness granted from above.
  • Writing что вызвало гласности. Вызвать takes the accusative: что вызвало гласность.
  • Dating the publication of previously banned literature to 1985 or 1986. The major publications came in 1988 and 1989, after several years of gradual widening.
  • Asserting that glasnost caused the national movements. Attribute it: одни историки считают … , другие возражают …

Active revision

Напишите по-русски 150 слов о гласности. Объясните разницу между разрешением и правом, приведите три датированных примера общественных изменений, изложите обе позиции историков о национальных движениях и закончите фразой о том, что гласность задумывалась как средство, а стала условием.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

§ 04

1991 год: the problems, the August coup and the dissolution#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Тема 4 - 1991 год: проблемы для СССР к началу 1991 г.; путч в августе; распад СССРLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

Key points

By the start of 1991 the Union faced several problems at once, and setting them out as a set rather than a sequence is what makes the year comprehensible. The economy was in severe difficulty, with shortage, inflation and a collapsing budget. Legal authority had fractured: republics had adopted declarations of sovereignty — Lithuania declared independence in March 1990 and Russia adopted its declaration of sovereignty in June 1990 — and republican laws were being declared superior to Union ones, a situation Russians call война законов, the war of laws. Force had been used in Vilnius in January 1991 with fatal results, which damaged Gorbachev's standing among reformers without satisfying conservatives. And the party itself had lost its constitutional monopoly the previous March.
Two events of the spring and summer pull in opposite directions and both must be known. On 17 March 1991 an all-Union referendum was held on preserving the USSR as a renewed federation; six republics did not take part, and among those who did vote a large majority voted in favour. On 12 June 1991 Борис Ельцин was elected President of the RSFSR in a direct popular election, which gave the Russian republic a leader with a mandate the Union president did not have. Through the summer the Ново-Огарёвский процесс negotiated a new Union treaty, which was to be signed on 20 August. Holding those three facts together — a vote for the Union, a directly elected Russian president, a treaty about to be signed — is what allows you to argue about inevitability rather than assert it.
The coup came first. On 19 August 1991 a self-declared Государственный комитет по чрезвычайному положению, known by its initials as ГКЧП, announced that Gorbachev was unable to perform his duties; he was in fact isolated at his holiday residence at Форос in Crimea. Troops entered Moscow. Resistance centred on the building of the Russian parliament, the Белый дом, where Yeltsin took a public stand, and the attempt collapsed within three days. Its consequences were immediate and the reverse of its intentions: the signing of the Union treaty did not take place, the Communist Party's activity was suspended and then banned on Russian territory, and republic after republic declared independence, Ukraine's declaration being confirmed by referendum on 1 December.
The dissolution followed in four documented steps. On 8 December 1991 the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the Беловежские соглашения, stating that the USSR as a subject of international law was ceasing to exist and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States. On 21 December the Алма-Атинская декларация brought eleven republics into it. On 25 December Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR and the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin. On 26 December the relevant chamber of the Supreme Soviet formally recorded the end of the Union. The word for the whole process is распад, disintegration, and the choice of word is itself contested: распад suggests a falling apart, развал a collapse, ликвидация a deliberate winding-up. Notice which word a Russian text uses and you have learned something about its position.
Worked example

Paper 3 Task 1: a spoken answer on a contested historical judgement

The stimulus card for the sub-theme 1991 год carries this statement: «Распад СССР был неизбежен.» Build an answer that argues rather than narrates.

  1. 01Announce the choice and put the weight on the disputed word

    Я выбрал утверждение А. Сразу оговорюсь: слово «неизбежен» здесь делает всю работу, и именно поэтому с ним трудно согласиться без оговорок. Оговориться is to make a reservation, and сразу оговорюсь is a compact, educated opening. Согласиться с takes the instrumental. Identifying the load-bearing word in a statement, rather than answering the statement as a whole, is the move that takes an answer straight into the top AO4 band.

  2. 02Give the strongest case for the statement, in one sentence

    Аргументы в пользу неизбежности сильные: экономика к 1991 году была в тяжёлом состоянии, союзные и республиканские законы противоречили друг другу, а республики одна за другой принимали декларации о суверенитете. В пользу takes the genitive. Противоречить takes the dative, друг другу. Одна за другой agrees with республики. Three pressures, one sentence, no narration — this is what an argument looks like as opposed to a chronicle.

  3. 03Give the counter-evidence with dates

    Но есть и обратная сторона. В марте 1991 года на референдуме большинство участников высказалось за сохранение обновлённого Союза, а новый союзный договор должны были подписать 20 августа. Высказаться за takes the accusative. Большинство takes a singular verb. Должны были подписать is the impersonal third-person plural with должны, avoiding the need to name who was to sign. The counter-evidence is what makes the answer an argument rather than an opinion.

  4. 04Name the hinge, and choose your relative clause carefully

    Путч, который начался 19 августа, эту возможность уничтожил. A note on form: the participle начавшийся would be idiomatic Russian here, but past active participles are marked receptive only in the specification's grammar list, so the который clause is what you are expected to produce. Recognise начавшийся in a text; write который начался. Эту возможность уничтожил puts the object before the verb, which throws the emphasis onto the verb at the end.

  5. 05Report the historians, take a side, concede its weakness, hand back

    Историки расходятся: одни считают, что распад был предрешён противоречиями системы, другие — что решающими оказались конкретные решения нескольких недель. Я склоняюсь ко второй позиции, но признаю, что она труднее доказуема. А вы что думаете: можно ли вообще говорить о неизбежности в истории? Был предрешён is a short-form past passive participle with an instrumental agent. Оказались решающими takes a predicate instrumental. Склоняться к takes the dative, with ко before the consonant cluster. Conceding that your own position is harder to prove is not weakness; the grid calls it evaluation.

Result: Я выбрал утверждение А. Сразу оговорюсь: слово «неизбежен» здесь делает всю работу, и именно поэтому с ним трудно согласиться без оговорок. Аргументы в пользу неизбежности сильные: экономика к 1991 году была в тяжёлом состоянии, союзные и республиканские законы противоречили друг другу, а республики одна за другой принимали декларации о суверенитете. Но есть и обратная сторона: в марте 1991 года на референдуме большинство участников высказалось за сохранение обновлённого Союза, а новый союзный договор должны были подписать 20 августа. Путч, который начался 19 августа, эту возможность уничтожил. Историки расходятся: одни считают, что распад был предрешён противоречиями системы, другие — что решающими оказались конкретные решения нескольких недель. Я склоняюсь ко второй позиции, но признаю, что она труднее доказуема. А вы что думаете: можно ли вообще говорить о неизбежности в истории?

Exam focus

  • Set out the problems of early 1991 as a set of simultaneous pressures, not as a narrative sequence (AO4).
  • Hold the three spring and summer facts together — the referendum, Yeltsin's election, the treaty due on 20 August — because they are what make the inevitability question a real one (AO4).
  • Notice which noun a source uses for the end of the USSR: распад, развал or ликвидация. The word carries the interpretation (AO2 and AO4).

Typical mistakes

  • Calling the ГКЧП a revolution or a war. It was a путч or a попытка государственного переворота, and it lasted three days.
  • Saying that the referendum of March 1991 was ignored. The more accurate and more interesting statement is that it was overtaken: the treaty it pointed towards was due for signature on 20 August and the coup began on 19 August.
  • Dating the end of the USSR to the coup. The coup is 19 to 21 August; the dissolution is 8, 21, 25 and 26 December.
  • Writing распад СССР был неизбежным as a statement of fact. It is the central contested judgement of the whole theme and must be argued, with the other position acknowledged.

Active revision

Подготовьте по-русски устный ответ примерно на две минуты на вопрос «Был ли распад СССР неизбежен?». Приведите три аргумента за и два против, назовите не менее пяти дат 1990–1991 годов, обязательно изложите позицию, с которой вы не согласны, и закончите вопросом к собеседнику.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

§ 05

Exam technique: turning a chronicle into an argument, and attributing what is disputed#

●●●AdvancedLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Paper 2 - critical and analytical response (AO4), 20 marks per essayLPPearson Edexcel 9RU0 Paper 3 Task 1 - knowledge and understanding of society and culture (AO4)

Key points

The characteristic failure on a historical theme is the chronicle: a candidate who knows the dates writes them out in order, adds an evaluative adjective at the end, and is surprised by the mark. The AO4 grid explains why. It rewards selecting relevant material, justifying points of view, developing arguments and evaluating issues; it does not reward completeness. A chronicle demonstrates knowledge and no judgement, which places it in the middle bands however accurate it is. The cure is structural: decide what the answer claims before deciding what it includes, and then include only what serves the claim. Six well-chosen dates beat twenty.
Three moves convert a chronicle into an argument, and all three can be practised on paper in minutes. The first is ranking: instead of listing causes, weigh them, using the vocabulary of условие, повод and причина, and using слабее and сильнее to say so. The second is the counterfactual, used carefully — если бы договор подписали 20 августа, союз, возможно, сохранился бы в другой форме — where если бы plus the past plus бы in both clauses is the required grammar and возможно is the hedge that keeps the claim honest. The third is attribution, which is what makes contested material safe as well as strong: одни историки считают … , другие возражают … , единого мнения нет.
Attribution deserves its own discipline on this theme, because the subject matter is recent, politically live, and remembered very differently by different people. Three rules cover it. Distinguish what is documented — a law, a date, a text — from what is judged. Attach every judgement to somebody, whether historians, contemporaries, or the Russian public. And where perception differs systematically, describe the difference rather than resolving it: the standing of Gorbachev inside Russia and outside it is the clearest instance in the whole specification, and describing that gap is analysis, whereas declaring which view is correct is not. Никогда не приписывайте оценку самому факту — this is the sentence to keep.
One more thing protects marks silently on this theme: the language of history is grammatically demanding and rewards preparation. Narration needs aspect chosen for meaning — imperfectives for processes and repeated actions, perfectives for the single completed events on which the argument turns. Reported disagreement needs indirect questions with ли and clauses introduced by о том, что. Purpose needs чтобы with the past tense. Passives are best rendered by reflexive verbs or by short-form participles. And the numerals of dates require the genitive of the year after a month, and the ordinal in the genitive after с or до. None of this can be improvised in an examination; all of it can be drilled in an afternoon.
Worked example

The same material as a chronicle and as an argument

Two answers to the question «Почему перестройка не достигла своих целей?». The first is a chronicle, the second an argument. Compare them move by move and see where the marks are.

  1. 01The chronicle, and what the grid sees

    В 1985 году Горбачёв стал генеральным секретарём. В 1986 году произошла авария в Чернобыле. В 1987 году приняли закон о государственном предприятии. В 1988 году разрешили кооперативы. В 1989 году прошёл Съезд народных депутатов. В 1991 году СССР распался. Это было плохо для страны. Every sentence is accurate. There is no claim, no selection and no attribution, and the final sentence is a reaction rather than a judgement. The AO4 grid will read this as descriptive evidence with limited interpretation.

  2. 02Move one — put the claim first

    Перестройка не достигла целей прежде всего потому, что экономическая реформа была половинчатой, а политическая оказалась быстрее её. Достигать takes the genitive, целей. Прежде всего ranks the cause immediately. Оказаться takes a predicate instrumental; быстрее её is a comparative with the genitive of comparison. The reader now knows what the answer argues and can judge every subsequent sentence by whether it supports it.

  3. 03Move two — select, and make each date do work

    Закон о государственном предприятии 1987 года дал заводам свободу, но не отменил план, и экономика осталась между двумя системами. Дефицит, талоны и очереди к 1990 году сделали реформу непопулярной раньше, чем она могла бы дать результат. Two dates, each attached to a mechanism. Осталась между plus the instrumental. Раньше, чем она могла бы дать результат uses a conditional inside a comparative clause, which is exactly the complex language the AO3 grid names.

  4. 04Move three — one careful counterfactual

    Если бы в 1990 году приняли программу «500 дней», результат, возможно, был бы другим — но и риски были бы выше. Если бы plus the past, and бы again in the main clause: this is the obligatory shape of a Russian counterfactual and getting it right is worth doing. Возможно keeps the claim honest, and the concession in the second half — но и риски были бы выше — prevents it from reading as wishful.

  5. 05Move four — attribute, and conclude on the gap in memory

    Историки расходятся в том, была ли неудача заложена в самом замысле; но почти все согласны, что общественное мнение проиграло раньше, чем экономика. Именно поэтому Горбачёва оценивают так по-разному внутри России и за её пределами — и это различие само по себе является историческим фактом. Расходиться в том, была ли is an indirect question with ли inside a prepositional phrase. Была заложена is a short-form past passive participle. The final observation is the highest-scoring sentence in the answer, because it describes a disagreement instead of joining it.

Result: Перестройка не достигла целей прежде всего потому, что экономическая реформа была половинчатой, а политическая оказалась быстрее её. Закон о государственном предприятии 1987 года дал заводам свободу, но не отменил план, и экономика осталась между двумя системами. Дефицит, талоны и очереди к 1990 году сделали реформу непопулярной раньше, чем она могла бы дать результат. Если бы в 1990 году приняли программу «500 дней», результат, возможно, был бы другим — но и риски были бы выше. Историки расходятся в том, была ли неудача заложена в самом замысле; но почти все согласны, что общественное мнение проиграло раньше, чем экономика. Именно поэтому Горбачёва оценивают так по-разному внутри России и за её пределами, и это различие само по себе является историческим фактом.

Exam focus

  • Decide the claim before selecting the evidence; six chosen dates beat twenty recited ones (AO4).
  • Practise the three conversion moves — rank the causes, use one careful counterfactual, attribute every judgement (AO4).
  • Drill the grammar the theme actually needs: aspect in narration, ли in indirect questions, чтобы with the past, genitive in dates (AO3).

Typical mistakes

  • Writing a complete chronicle and adding a verdict at the end; the grid rewards selection and argument, not coverage.
  • Using a counterfactual without a hedge. Если бы … , союз сохранился бы is an assertion about an unknowable; adding возможно or скорее всего makes it a defensible claim.
  • Attributing a judgement to Russians or to the West as though either were a single voice; say многие в России, ряд историков, значительная часть общества.
  • Neglecting aspect in narration, so that single decisive events and long processes are told in the same tense form.

Active revision

Возьмите хронологию 1985–1991 годов и сократите её до шести дат, которые поддерживают один тезис по вашему выбору. Затем напишите по-русски 120 слов, в которых эти шесть дат используются как доказательства, а не как рассказ. Проверьте, что каждое оценочное суждение кому-то приписано.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages (Department for Education)

Contents

Section -- / 05

    • 01Что вызвало перестройку: the situation of 1985 and the argument about it●
    • 02Экономические изменения и их исходы: the reform that produced neither plan nor market●
    • 03Гласность: what it was for, what it released, and what it could not be stopped from doing●
    • 041991 год: the problems, the August coup and the dissolution●
    • 05Exam technique: turning a chronicle into an argument, and attributing what is disputed●

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From notes into training

The last years of the USSR: Перестройка, гласность и 1991 год

Reinforce this topic with matching tasks from the question bank.

~37
min
4
Competencies
Practise

References & sources

Sources

Pearson Edexcel

  • Pearson Edexcel Level 3 Advanced GCE in Russian (9RU0) specification

Department for Education

  • GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages

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