Notes · Physical EducationUK · A-Levels

Stress Management

This chapter shows how a performer controls the arousal, anxiety and stress that can wreck a performance. It first sets out the stress process and its link to the arousal and anxiety theories, then covers the cognitive techniques that calm the mind and the somatic techniques that calm the body, matching each technique to the type of anxiety it best addresses and evaluating its effectiveness.

3 sections~11 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Standard 3

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Exam profile

AO1 · Describe the stress response and the cognitive and somatic stress-management techniquesAO2 · Apply the techniques to named performers and stressful sporting situationsAO3 · Analyse and evaluate the effectiveness of the techniques and match them to the type of anxiety

Operators:describeexplainapplyanalyseevaluate

basic level

AS-Level requires the main cognitive and somatic stress-management techniques.

higher level

The full A-Level requires matching the technique to the type of anxiety (cognitive or somatic) and evaluating its effectiveness for a named performer.

Depth

Text

Contents · 3 sections

Stress Management

Stress, arousal and anxiety#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.4.3DfE GCE PE - stress management

The stress process

Fig. 1A stressor is appraised by the performer; if the demands are perceived to exceed the ability to cope, stress produces cognitive and somatic anxiety, which must be managed to reach optimal arousal.

Stress is the response that occurs when a performer perceives an imbalance between the demands of a situation and their ability to cope with those demands. A stressor - the cause of stress - might be a major competition, an important penalty, an intimidating opponent or the fear of failure. Crucially, stress depends on perception: the same situation is a welcome challenge to one performer (eustress, a positive, energising stress that some athletes seek out) and a threat to another (distress, the negative stress that harms performance). The stress process therefore begins with how the performer appraises the demand.

Stress produces both a physiological and a psychological response, which map directly onto the two dimensions of anxiety from the sport-psychology topic. The physiological (somatic) response is the body's activation - raised heart rate and breathing, sweating, adrenaline release and muscular tension - as the body prepares for 'fight or flight'. The psychological (cognitive) response is the mind's reaction - worry, negative thoughts, apprehension and loss of concentration and confidence. Recognising which response dominates is the key to choosing the right management technique.

The effect of this stress and arousal on performance is described by the arousal theories. As explained by the inverted-U hypothesis, a moderate level of arousal is optimal and either too little or too much harms performance; and, as catastrophe theory adds, if high cognitive anxiety is present, excessive arousal can cause a sudden collapse in performance ('choking'). The aim of stress management is therefore not to remove arousal altogether - some is needed to perform - but to bring it to, and hold it at, the optimal level for the skill and the performer.

This gives the guiding principle for the rest of the topic: stress-management techniques are chosen to match the type of anxiety. Cognitive techniques target the psychological (cognitive) response - the negative thoughts and worry - and so calm the mind; somatic techniques target the physiological (somatic) response - the racing heart and tension - and so calm the body. A full stress-management programme usually combines the two, because a performer often experiences both cognitive and somatic anxiety, and it is used both before (to prepare) and during (to control) competition. Diagnosing the performer's anxiety and selecting the matching technique is exactly what the examination rewards.

Worked example

Analysing a stressful situation

Before taking a decisive free kick, a footballer reports both a pounding heart and a stream of thoughts about missing. Analyse this using the stress process and state what kind of techniques are needed.

Identify the stressor and appraisal
The decisive free kick is the stressor; the player appraises its demands as exceeding their ability to cope, triggering stress.
Somatic response
The pounding heart is the physiological (somatic) response - raised arousal preparing the body.
Cognitive response
The thoughts about missing are the psychological (cognitive) response - worry and negative thinking.
Match the techniques
Because both types of anxiety are present, the player needs a somatic technique (e.g. breathing control) for the body and a cognitive technique (e.g. positive self-talk or imagery) for the mind.

Result: The free kick produces both somatic and cognitive anxiety, so a combination of somatic (breathing control) and cognitive (self-talk/imagery) techniques is needed.

Typical mistakes

Treating all stress as negative - some arousal is needed to perform, and eustress can help; the aim is the optimal level.
Failing to link the type of anxiety to the type of technique - cognitive techniques for cognitive anxiety, somatic for somatic.

Active revision

Explain how a stressor such as taking a decisive penalty produces both cognitive and somatic anxiety, and why a performer might need both types of stress-management technique.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Cognitive stress-management techniques#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.4.3DfE GCE PE - cognitive techniques

Matching the technique to the type of anxiety

Fig. 2Cognitive techniques target cognitive (mental) anxiety; somatic techniques target somatic (bodily) anxiety. A programme often combines both.

Cognitive techniques manage the psychological, mental side of stress - the worry, negative thoughts and loss of concentration - and so are best suited to cognitive anxiety. The most important is mental rehearsal and imagery: the performer creates or recreates a vivid, controllable mental picture of successfully performing a skill or of a calm, confident performance, using all the senses. Imagery can be internal (seeing and feeling the action from within one's own body) or external (watching oneself as if on film); it can be used to rehearse technique, to build confidence and to induce a relaxed, focused state, and it works partly because rehearsing success reinforces the correct motor programme and positive expectations.

Self-talk is the performer's internal dialogue, and it can be positive or negative. Positive self-talk replaces unhelpful, negative thoughts ('don't miss') with constructive, encouraging or instructional statements ('watch the ball', 'you have practised this'), which raises confidence and directs attention to the task. Thought-stopping is a related technique in which the performer uses a trigger word or action (saying 'stop', clenching a fist) to interrupt a negative thought the moment it arises, and then replaces it with a positive one - preventing a spiral of negative thinking.

Rational (positive) thinking and cognitive restructuring involve challenging and reframing irrational or catastrophic thoughts: the performer questions the negative thought ('if I miss this, it's all over') and replaces it with a realistic, balanced one ('I have scored many of these; I'll focus on my routine'). Goal setting also has a cognitive role here, because clear, controllable process goals give the anxious performer a specific, manageable focus for their attention, drawing it away from the outcome and the worry.

The evaluative point is that cognitive techniques are powerful for the mental side of anxiety but must be learned and practised over time - they cannot be applied effectively for the first time under pressure - and they are most effective when matched to a performer who is experiencing cognitive rather than somatic anxiety. Because many performers experience both, cognitive techniques are usually combined with a somatic technique. Selecting an appropriate cognitive technique for a named performer's cognitive anxiety, explaining how it works and evaluating it, is the applied task of this section.

Worked example

Applying imagery and self-talk

A netball goal-shooter becomes flooded with negative thoughts ('I'm going to miss') at the free pass. Recommend and explain two cognitive techniques.

Imagery
Before shooting, the shooter uses vivid, multi-sensory imagery of a successful shot - seeing the ball arc in, feeling the smooth release - which rehearses the correct action and builds positive expectation.
Thought-stopping and positive self-talk
The moment the thought 'I'm going to miss' arises, the shooter uses a trigger ('stop') to interrupt it and replaces it with instructional self-talk ('eyes on the ring, smooth release').
Why they suit the anxiety
Both target the cognitive (mental) anxiety directly, redirecting attention from the fear of missing to the task, and both must have been practised beforehand to work under pressure.

Result: Imagery of success and thought-stopping with positive self-talk both address the shooter's cognitive anxiety, redirecting attention to the task and building confidence.

Typical mistakes

Using a cognitive technique to treat purely somatic anxiety (a racing heart) - cognitive techniques target the mind; somatic techniques target the body.
Describing imagery vaguely - it should be vivid, controllable and multi-sensory, and be practised in advance.

Active revision

A high jumper is troubled by negative thoughts about failing before each attempt. Recommend two cognitive techniques and explain how each would help.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

Somatic stress-management techniques#

StandardAQA 7582 3.2.4.3DfE GCE PE - somatic techniques

Somatic techniques lower arousal

Fig. 3Somatic techniques act on the body's arousal - relaxation, breathing control, biofeedback and centring reduce heart rate and muscular tension towards the optimal level.

Somatic techniques manage the physiological, bodily side of stress - the raised heart rate, sweating and muscular tension - and so are best suited to somatic anxiety. Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) is a foundational method in which the performer works through the muscle groups of the body in turn, deliberately tensing each for a few seconds and then relaxing it, learning to recognise the difference between tension and relaxation and to release unwanted tension. With practice, the performer can relax the whole body quickly, lowering arousal to the optimal level.

Breathing control (deep, slow, diaphragmatic breathing) is a simple, portable and effective technique: by consciously slowing and deepening the breathing, the performer reduces heart rate and physiological arousal and creates a feeling of calm and control, and it can be done discreetly in the moments before or during competition (before a serve, at the free-throw line). Its simplicity and immediacy make it one of the most widely used somatic techniques.

Biofeedback uses equipment to give the performer real-time information about a physiological measure of arousal - heart rate, muscle tension (via electromyography), skin temperature or sweating. By seeing or hearing this feedback, the performer learns which relaxation strategies actually lower their arousal, and over time develops the ability to control these responses voluntarily. Centring is a technique, often combining breathing and a focus of attention, in which the performer directs their attention to the centre of their body (around the navel) while breathing out slowly, which steadies the body and refocuses the mind at a critical moment.

The evaluative point mirrors that for the cognitive techniques: somatic techniques are effective for the bodily symptoms of anxiety but, like all mental-skills training, they must be learned and practised in advance to be reliable under pressure, and some (such as biofeedback) require equipment and time. Because performers commonly experience both somatic and cognitive anxiety, the strongest stress-management programmes combine somatic techniques (to calm the body) with cognitive techniques (to calm the mind), applied both before and during competition to bring arousal to, and hold it at, the optimal level. Recommending a somatic technique for a named performer's somatic anxiety, explaining how it lowers arousal and evaluating it, is the applied focus here.

Worked example

Managing a golfer's somatic anxiety

A golfer's hands become tense and shaky over an important putt, though their thoughts are calm. Recommend two somatic techniques and justify the choice.

Diagnose the anxiety
The symptoms are bodily (tense, shaking hands, raised arousal) with calm thoughts, so this is somatic anxiety - somatic techniques are appropriate.
Breathing control
Before the putt the golfer takes slow, deep breaths, which lowers heart rate and physiological arousal and creates a sense of control - discreet and immediate.
Progressive muscular relaxation / centring
Having practised PMR, the golfer releases tension from the hands and shoulders; centring on the out-breath steadies the body at the moment of the stroke.
Note the requirement
Both techniques must have been rehearsed in practice to be reliable under competitive pressure.

Result: Because the anxiety is somatic, breathing control and progressive muscular relaxation (or centring) directly lower the golfer's arousal and steady the hands for the putt.

Typical mistakes

Using a somatic technique to treat purely cognitive anxiety (negative thoughts) - somatic techniques target bodily arousal.
Assuming techniques work instantly - they must be learned and practised in training to be reliable in competition.

Active revision

An archer experiences a racing heart and tense, shaking hands before shooting. Recommend two somatic techniques and explain how each lowers their arousal.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education (Department for Education) · AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification (AQA)

References & sources

Sources

Department for Education

GCE AS and A level subject content for physical education

AQA

AQA A-level Physical Education 7582 specification

Stress Management

3 sections~11 min reading time3 competenciesLevel Standard 3

Stress Management

Key points

Analysing a stressful situation

Key points

Applying imagery and self-talk

Key points

Managing a golfer's somatic anxiety

Sources

Stress Management

Key points

Analysing a stressful situation

Key points

Applying imagery and self-talk

Key points

Managing a golfer's somatic anxiety

Sources