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Notes/Classical Greek/Accidence and syntax
Notes · Classical GreekUK · A-Levels

Accidence and syntax

Appendix 5d of the OCR specification lists, on two pages, the accidence and syntax required for Components 01 and 02, and that list is the spine of the whole qualification. Nothing else in A-Level Classical Greek is examined without it: an unseen from Xenophon is a test of whether you can see a genitive absolute coming, a scanned trimeter is unreadable if you cannot tell an augment from a reduplication, and a literary answer that misidentifies a mood has nothing left to analyse. This topic works through the list in the order in which the language is actually built, from the printed page itself to the uses of ἄν, and it teaches the specification's own orthographic rules as it goes: read the accents, write the breathings, ignore the dual.

6 sections·~55 min reading time·3 competencies·Level Foundation 1 · Standard 2 · Advanced 3

T·0111 / 10
Exam profile
AO1 · Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the language: recognise, analyse and deploy the accidence and syntax listed in Appendix 5dAO1 · Demonstrate a detailed understanding of the linguistic structures of material written by ancient authors, including individual words, phrases and sentencesAO2 · Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of literature: read the grammar of a set text closely enough to describe what its author is doing with it
Operators:identifyparsestate the caseexplaintranslateanalysejustifydistinguish

basic level

At AS Level the same grammatical categories are examined but the passages are chosen to keep within the Defined Vocabulary List, and the harder corners of the system — the optative in historic sequence, the uses of ἄν with infinitive and participle, the -μι verbs outside their commonest forms — appear rarely and in obvious contexts.

higher level

At A-Level the whole of Appendix 5d is live in an unadapted passage: verbs of both conjugations in all moods, voices and tenses, compound verbs whose prefixes change shape, extended reported speech with subordinate clauses inside it, and the full set of subordinate clause types including fearing, prevention, precaution, concessive and comparative. The A-Level habit is not to recite paradigms but to read a form and name at once what it is doing in its clause.

Depth

Reading depth: In depth

Text

Text size: Standard

Contents · 6 sections▾
  1. Accidence and syntax
    • 01The printed page: script, breathings, accents and what you are asked to write○
    • 02Nouns: gender, number, case and the three declensions◐
    • 03The noun phrase: the article, adjectives, adverbs, comparison and pronouns◐
    • 04The verb: aspect, tense, mood and voice in the ω-conjugation●
    • 05The -μι conjugation, irregular principal parts, participles and infinitives●
    • 06Syntax: case usage, negation, subordinate clauses and the uses of ἄν●
§ 01

The printed page: script, breathings, accents and what you are asked to write#

●○○FoundationLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d — Classical Greek accentuation: learners will not be expected to write accents, but should be able to distinguish words of identical spelling but with differing accentuationLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d — learners will be expected to write breathing marks as part of the prose composition in Component 02LPOCR H444 Appendix 5d — a knowledge of the dual form will not be required; lunate sigma and iota adscript will not be used

Words distinguished by accent or by breathing alone

Identical letters, different wordTable with 4 columns and 12 rows, Data: Letters · One reading · The other reading · Where it bites; τις / τίς · τις — someone, a certain (enclitic) · τίς — who? which? (acute, never grave) · A vague statement against a direct question; ποτε / πότε · ποτε — at some time, ever (enclitic) · πότε — when? (interrogative) · An indefinite phrase against an indirect question; που / ποῦ · που — somewhere, I suppose · ποῦ — where? · A hedging particle against a question word; πως / πῶς · πως — somehow, in any way · πῶς — how? · Idiom against a genuine question; ποθεν / πόθεν · ποθεν — from somewhere · πόθεν — from where? · Same trap, less often set; εἰμί / εἶμι · εἰμί — I am · εἶμι — I shall go · Two of the commonest verbs in Greek; οἴκοι / οἶκοι · οἴκοι — at home (adverb) · οἶκοι — houses (nominative plural) · An adverb against a plural subject; ἀλλά / ἄλλα · ἀλλά — but · ἄλλα — other things (neuter plural) · A connective against an object; λῦσαι / λύσαι · λῦσαι — to release (aorist active infinitive) · λύσαι — he would release (aorist optative) · Infinitive against optative in reported speech; οὐκοῦν / οὔκουν · οὐκοῦν — therefore, well then · οὔκουν — surely not, certainly not · A conclusion against a denial; ἐξ / ἕξ · ἐξ — out of (smooth breathing) · ἕξ — six (rough breathing) · A breathing pair, not an accent pair; οὐ / οὗ · οὐ — not (smooth breathing) · οὗ — where, of whom (rough breathing) · A breathing pair, not an accent pair, highlighted cell: τίς — who? which? (acute, never grave)LETTERSONE READINGTHE OTHER READINGWHERE IT BITESΤΙΣ / ΤΊΣτις — someone, a certain(enclitic)τίς — who? which? (acute,never grave)A vague statement against adirect questionΠΟΤΕ / ΠΌΤΕποτε — at some time, ever(enclitic)πότε — when? (interrogative)An indefinite phrase againstan indirect questionΠΟΥ / ΠΟΥ͂που — somewhere, I supposeποῦ — where?A hedging particle against aquestion wordΠΩΣ / ΠΩ͂Σπως — somehow, in any wayπῶς — how?Idiom against a genuinequestionΠΟΘΕΝ / ΠΌΘΕΝποθεν — from somewhereπόθεν — from where?Same trap, less often setΕἸΜΊ / ΕἾΜΙεἰμί — I amεἶμι — I shall goTwo of the commonest verbsin GreekΟἼΚΟΙ / ΟἾΚΟΙοἴκοι — at home (adverb)οἶκοι — houses (nominativeplural)An adverb against a pluralsubjectἈΛΛΆ / ἌΛΛΑἀλλά — butἄλλα — other things (neuterplural)A connective against anobjectΛΥ͂ΣΑΙ / ΛΎΣΑΙλῦσαι — to release (aoristactive infinitive)λύσαι — he would release(aorist optative)Infinitive against optativein reported speechΟΥ̓ΚΟΥ͂Ν / ΟΥ̓́ΚΟΥΝοὐκοῦν — therefore, wellthenοὔκουν — surely not,certainly notA conclusion against adenialἘΞ / ἝΞἐξ — out of (smoothbreathing)ἕξ — six (rough breathing)A breathing pair, not anaccent pairΟΥ̓ / ΟὟοὐ — not (smooth breathing)οὗ — where, of whom (roughbreathing)A breathing pair, not anaccent pair
Fig. 1The specification requires learners to distinguish words of identical spelling with differing accentuation, so these pairs are examinable content rather than trivia. The emphasised cell is the pair that occurs most often: an unaccented enclitic τις is someone, while τίς with its acute is a question word, and mistaking one for the other turns a statement into a question.

Key points

Before any grammar, settle what the examination paper will actually look like, because three of the specification's own rules are about the page rather than the language. Lunate sigma and iota adscript will not be used: sigma is printed σ inside a word and ς at the end of one, never ϲ, and the long diphthongs are printed with the iota written underneath — ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ — never beside the vowel as ΑΙ or ᾼ. That subscript iota is not decoration. It is the dative singular ending of the first and second declensions, and of every feminine and masculine noun with a long-vowel stem: τῇ βουλῇ, τῷ δήμῳ, τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, τῇ πόλει against τὴν βουλήν, τὸν δῆμον. A candidate who reads past it turns a dative into a nominative, and the sentence loses its indirect object.
Every word beginning with a vowel or a diphthong carries a breathing, and the breathing is part of the spelling. The rough breathing is an aspirate h and the smooth breathing marks its absence, so ὁ is the and ὅ is which, ὡς is as and ὅς is who, ἐξ is out of and ἕξ is six, οὐ is not and οὗ is where or of whom. Initial υ is always rough (ὑπέρ, ὕδωρ), and initial ρ is always written ῥ. Rough breathings also explain the shape of compounds: because ἵστημι begins with an aspirate, ἐπί plus ἵστημι becomes ἐφίστημι and κατά plus ἵστημι becomes καθίστημι, the final consonant of the preposition turning into its aspirated partner. The specification makes breathings a production skill, not just a reading one: learners are expected to write breathing marks as part of the Component 02 prose composition.
Accents are the opposite case. Learners will not be expected to write accents — but they should be able to distinguish words of identical spelling with differing accentuation. That single sentence tells you exactly how to treat them. You do not have to internalise the recessive rule, the law of limitation or the behaviour of enclitics well enough to accent your own composition; you do have to read the accent on the printed page as information, because in a dozen high-frequency cases it is the only thing separating two different words. τις is someone and τίς is who; ποτε is ever and πότε is when; εἰμί is I am and εἶμι is I shall go; ἀλλά is but and ἄλλα is other things. In an unseen these are not curiosities, they are the difference between a statement and a question.
Three further printing conventions cost marks when they are not expected. Elision drops a short final vowel before a following vowel and marks it with an apostrophe: δ' for δέ, ἀλλ' for ἀλλά, οὐδ' for οὐδέ, and with aspiration where the following word has a rough breathing, μεθ' ἡμῶν for μετὰ ἡμῶν, ἀφ' οὗ for ἀπὸ οὗ. Crasis fuses two words into one and marks the fusion with a coronis: κἀγώ for καὶ ἐγώ, τἆλλα for τὰ ἄλλα, τοὐναντίον for τὸ ἐναντίον. Movable ν appears at the end of ἐστίν, λέγουσιν, πᾶσιν before a vowel or a pause and is not a separate form. None of these is difficult; all of them are invisible until you meet them cold under time.
Two last conventions. Greek punctuation looks like English punctuation but is not: the raised dot, the ano teleia, does the work of an English colon or semicolon, and the mark shaped like an English semicolon is a question mark. Read that mark as a full stop and you will translate a question as a statement and lose the clause. And the dual, the special set of endings used of exactly two people or things, is explicitly not required by the specification — but you will meet it in Homer and in tragedy, so the rule is asymmetric: recognise τὼ παῖδε or ἐλθόντε as a pair when you read them, and never produce a dual form when you write.
Worked example

Reading four sentences that differ only in an accent or a breathing

Constructed teaching Greek, not a quotation. Translate each pair, and in each case state exactly which mark on the page decided your answer. (a) ἦλθέ τις ἐκ τῆς κώμης. / τίς ἦλθεν ἐκ τῆς κώμης; (b) οἴκοι ἔμενον. / οἶκοι ἐν τῇ κώμῃ ἦσαν. (c) εἰμὶ ἐν τῇ πόλει. / εἶμι εἰς τὴν πόλιν. (d) ἐξ ἡμερῶν ἓξ ἀφίκοντο.

  1. 01(a) the enclitic against the interrogative

    In the first sentence τις carries no accent of its own and leans back on the preceding word, which is why ἦλθε appears as ἦλθέ with an extra acute on its last syllable: that thrown-back accent is itself the proof that what follows is the enclitic. Translate someone came from the village. In the second sentence τίς stands first and carries its own acute, which an interrogative never surrenders to a grave; the sentence closes with the mark shaped like an English semicolon, which is the Greek question mark. Translate who came from the village?

  2. 02(b) adverb against noun

    οἴκοι, acute on the first syllable, is the frozen locative adverb at home; οἶκοι, circumflex, is the nominative plural of ὁ οἶκος, houses. The verbs settle the sense in each case, but only the accent settles the word. Translate they were staying at home, and there were houses in the village.

  3. 03(c) two verbs, one spelling

    εἰμί with the accent on the ultima is I am; εἶμι with the circumflex on the first syllable is I shall go. The prepositions confirm the reading, because εἰμί naturally takes ἐν with the dative for place where and εἶμι takes εἰς with the accusative for motion towards, but the accent tells you before the preposition does. Translate I am in the city, and I shall go to the city.

  4. 04(d) the breathing, not the accent

    Here the two words are separated by their breathings rather than their accents. ἐξ, smooth, is the preposition out of, used before a vowel where ἐκ would stand before a consonant; ἕξ, rough, is the numeral six. The genitive plural ἡμερῶν belongs to the preposition, and ἕξ agrees with nothing because Greek cardinals from five to a hundred do not decline. Translate after six days they arrived, or more literally out of six days they arrived.

  5. 05What to write in an examination answer

    A grammar question in Component 02 Section A will not ask you to feel the difference; it will ask you to state it. The answer format is the form, then the category, then the evidence: τίς, interrogative pronoun, nominative singular, subject of ἦλθεν, identified by its acute accent and by the question mark closing the sentence. Three clauses, no prose.

Result: (a) Someone came from the village. / Who came from the village? (b) They were staying at home. / There were houses in the village. (c) I am in the city. / I shall go to the city. (d) After six days they arrived. The deciding marks are, in order: the enclitic accent thrown back onto ἦλθέ; the acute against the circumflex on οἴκοι and οἶκοι; the accent position on εἰμί and εἶμι; and the smooth against the rough breathing on ἐξ and ἕξ.

Exam focus

  • Component 02 Section B is the one place where orthography is a production skill: the specification expects breathing marks to be written in the prose composition, so every word you write that begins with a vowel needs a decision (AO1).
  • In an unseen, the accent is free information about which of two identical spellings you are looking at, and the examiner has chosen the passage knowing the accents are printed (AO1).
  • Iota subscript is a case ending. Treat a missing subscript in your own reading as a missed dative, not as a typographical detail (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Reading τῇ or τῷ as if the iota were not there and translating a dative as a nominative or accusative.
  • Taking the Greek question mark for a semicolon, so that a question is translated as a statement — a whole-clause error, not a small slip.
  • Writing accents in the Component 02 composition, wrongly, when they are not required, and omitting breathings, which are.

Active revision

Take one printed page of any Attic prose author. Circle every breathing on the page and say aloud whether it is rough or smooth and what difference it makes; underline every iota subscript and name the case it marks; and box every raised dot and every Greek question mark, then translate the sentence they close. Finally, list every word on the page whose meaning would change if its accent moved, and give both meanings.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages (Department for Education)

§ 02

Nouns: gender, number, case and the three declensions#

●●○StandardLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Accidence — nouns of all standard and common irregular typesLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — standard patterns of case usageLPDfE GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages

The three declensions

Noun endings across the three declensionsTable with 8 columns and 8 rows, Data: Case · 1st f. τιμή · 1st m. πολίτης · 2nd m. λόγος · 2nd n. δῶρον · 3rd m. φύλαξ · 3rd n. σῶμα · 3rd f. πόλις; Nom. sg. · τιμή · πολίτης · λόγος · δῶρον · φύλαξ · σῶμα · πόλις; Gen. sg. · τιμῆς · πολίτου · λόγου · δώρου · φύλακος · σώματος · πόλεως; Dat. sg. · τιμῇ · πολίτῃ · λόγῳ · δώρῳ · φύλακι · σώματι · πόλει; Acc. sg. · τιμήν · πολίτην · λόγον · δῶρον · φύλακα · σῶμα · πόλιν; Nom. pl. · τιμαί · πολῖται · λόγοι · δῶρα · φύλακες · σώματα · πόλεις; Gen. pl. · τιμῶν · πολιτῶν · λόγων · δώρων · φυλάκων · σωμάτων · πόλεων; Dat. pl. · τιμαῖς · πολίταις · λόγοις · δώροις · φύλαξι(ν) · σώμασι(ν) · πόλεσι(ν); Acc. pl. · τιμάς · πολίτας · λόγους · δῶρα · φύλακας · σώματα · πόλεις, highlighted cell: σῶμαCASE1ST F. ΤΙΜΉ1ST M. ΠΟΛΊΤΗΣ2ND M. ΛΌΓΟΣ2ND N. ΔΩ͂ΡΟΝ3RD M. ΦΎΛΑΞ3RD N. ΣΩ͂ΜΑ3RD F. ΠΌΛΙΣNOM. SG.τιμήπολίτηςλόγοςδῶρονφύλαξσῶμαπόλιςGEN. SG.τιμῆςπολίτουλόγουδώρουφύλακοςσώματοςπόλεωςDAT. SG.τιμῇπολίτῃλόγῳδώρῳφύλακισώματιπόλειACC. SG.τιμήνπολίτηνλόγονδῶρονφύλακασῶμαπόλινNOM. PL.τιμαίπολῖταιλόγοιδῶραφύλακεςσώματαπόλειςGEN. PL.τιμῶνπολιτῶνλόγωνδώρωνφυλάκωνσωμάτωνπόλεωνDAT. PL.τιμαῖςπολίταιςλόγοιςδώροιςφύλαξι(ν)σώμασι(ν)πόλεσι(ν)ACC. PL.τιμάςπολίταςλόγουςδῶραφύλακαςσώματαπόλεις
Fig. 2The genitive singular is the key that identifies the declension, which is why vocabulary lists print it. Read down each column once, then read across each row: the horizontal patterns are what actually save time in an unseen. The emphasised cell is the neuter rule — in every neuter noun of every declension the accusative is identical to the nominative, in both numbers.

Key points

A Greek noun carries three pieces of information at once, and reading Greek quickly is largely the habit of extracting all three from one ending. Gender is a property of the word rather than of the thing it denotes, it is learned with the word, and it does not change: ἡ ὁδός is feminine although it ends like a masculine, τὸ παιδίον is neuter although it denotes a child. Number is singular or plural, the dual being excluded by the specification. Case is the noun's grammatical job in its own clause — subject, object, possessor, indirect object, instrument — and because Greek marks that job on the word rather than by position, word order is free to do other work: emphasis, contrast, suspense, the shape of a period. The candidate who translates by guessing from word order is reading English with Greek words in it.
There are three declensions, not five, and the genitive singular identifies which one you are in — which is why every vocabulary list prints it. Genitive in -ης or -ας is first declension: mostly feminine (ἡ τιμή, τιμῆς; ἡ χώρα, χώρας), but with a masculine subgroup in -ης or -ας whose genitive ends -ου (ὁ πολίτης, πολίτου; ὁ νεανίας, νεανίου). Genitive in -ου is second declension: mostly masculine (ὁ λόγος, λόγου) with a large neuter group in -ον (τὸ δῶρον, δώρου) and a handful of important feminines in -ος (ἡ ὁδός, ἡ νῆσος, ἡ νόσος). Genitive in -ος is third declension, the largest and most varied, with all three genders and a stem that the nominative often disguises: ὁ φύλαξ, φύλακος has the stem φυλακ-, τὸ σῶμα, σώματος has σωματ-, ἡ πόλις, πόλεως has πολι-. Learn the noun as a triplet — article, nominative, genitive — because ὁ φύλαξ, φύλακος tells you gender, declension and stem in four words, while φύλαξ alone tells you almost nothing.
Three rules cut across the whole system and resolve most of the ambiguity in an unseen. First, in every neuter noun of every declension the nominative and accusative are identical in both numbers, and the neuter nominative and accusative plural end in -α: δῶρον and δῶρα, σῶμα and σώματα. Second, and peculiar to Greek, a neuter plural subject normally takes a singular verb: τὰ ζῷα τρέχει, the animals run, is correct and is not a mistake to be corrected in translation. Third, the third declension dative plural is formed by adding -σι to the stem, and the consonant collisions that follow are regular but disguising: φυλακ- plus -σι gives φύλαξι, σωματ- plus -σι drops the τ and gives σώμασι, and stems in -ντ- give the familiar πᾶσι and λύουσι. A form you have never seen may simply be a stem you know wearing its dative plural.
The third declension repays a little more attention than the other two because it contains the highest-frequency nouns in the language. Stems in -ι- have the Attic genitive in -εως with the accent left standing on the antepenultimate syllable against the ordinary rule (ἡ πόλις, πόλεως, πόλει, πόλιν; plural πόλεις, πόλεων, πόλεσι, πόλεις). Stems in -ευ- give ὁ βασιλεύς, βασιλέως, βασιλεῖ, βασιλέα. Stems in -εσ- contract: τὸ γένος, γένους (from γένεσος), γένει, γένος; plural γένη, γενῶν. And a small group of very common nouns are irregular enough to be learned individually: ὁ ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός with its intrusive δ; ὁ πατήρ, πατρός and ἡ μήτηρ, μητρός with their vowel-dropping stems; ἡ γυνή, γυναικός; ἡ ναῦς, νεώς; ὁ Ζεύς, Διός; τὸ ὕδωρ, ὕδατος. Each looks like something else, which is exactly why the examiner can use it.
Finally, know what the cases do, because the pattern of case usage matters more in translation than the ability to recite endings. The nominative marks the subject and the complement after εἰμί, γίγνομαι and the passive of verbs of naming and appointing. The accusative marks the direct object, motion towards with a preposition, extent of time and space (τρεῖς ἡμέρας, for three days), and the accusative of respect, which has no English equivalent and must be paraphrased (καλὸς τὸ εἶδος, beautiful in appearance). The genitive marks possession, the whole of which something is a part, separation and origin after verbs of ceasing and depriving, the object of verbs of hearing, remembering and touching, the standard after a comparative, the time within which, and the absolute construction with a participle. The dative marks the indirect object, the instrument or means, the person interested or affected, accompaniment, the time at which, and the object of a large family of verbs including ἕπομαι, πείθομαι, βοηθέω and χράομαι. The vocative, for direct address, is usually preceded by ὦ.
Worked example

Reading a sentence by its endings alone

Constructed teaching Greek, not a quotation: ταύτῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ὁ τοῦ βασιλέως παῖς τοῖς τῆς πόλεως φύλαξιν μεγάλην ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας παρέσχεν. Identify the declension, case, number and function of every noun and adjective, then translate.

  1. 01Find the verb first

    παρέσχεν is third person singular aorist active indicative of παρέχω, I provide, I offer. The subject is therefore singular. παρέχω characteristically takes an accusative of the thing provided and a dative of the person it is provided to, so before reading a single noun you already know the shape of the sentence you are hunting for: one nominative, one accusative, one dative.

  2. 02ταύτῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ

    ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας is first declension feminine; ἡμέρᾳ, with iota subscript, is dative singular. τῇ is the dative singular feminine article and ταύτῃ the dative singular feminine of οὗτος, both agreeing with it. This is a dative of time at which, which needs no preposition: on that day. Note that ταύτῃ stands outside the article-noun group, which is the predicative position that demonstratives always take.

  3. 03ὁ τοῦ βασιλέως παῖς

    παῖς, παιδός is third declension; παῖς here is nominative singular, and ὁ confirms it — the subject. βασιλεύς, βασιλέως is the third-declension -ευ- type, and βασιλέως is genitive singular, a genitive of possession. The genitive sits inside the article-noun sandwich, ὁ … παῖς, which is the attributive position: the king's son, with the whole phrase held together by the article.

  4. 04τοῖς τῆς πόλεως φύλαξιν

    φύλαξ, φύλακος is third declension; φύλαξιν is the dative plural, the stem φυλακ- plus -σι with the expected consonant fusion, and the movable ν before the following vowel. τοῖς agrees with it. This is the indirect object demanded by παρέχω. πόλεως is again a genitive singular of the iota-stem type, dependent on φύλαξιν and again sandwiched attributively: to the guards of the city.

  5. 05μεγάλην ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας

    ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος is third declension feminine; ἐλπίδα is accusative singular, the direct object. μεγάλην is the accusative singular feminine of μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα, agreeing with it in case, number and gender — note that μέγας uses the stem μεγαλ- everywhere except in the masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular. σωτηρία, σωτηρίας is first declension feminine; σωτηρίας is genitive singular, an objective genitive, because the hope is directed at safety: hope of safety, not safety's hope.

  6. 06Render it as English

    Assemble the pieces in the order English needs — time phrase, subject, verb, indirect object, direct object — rather than the order Greek used. Nothing of the Greek emphasis is lost, because the front position of the time phrase can be reproduced in English simply by keeping it first.

Result: On that day the king's son gave the guards of the city great hope of safety. Nouns: ἡμέρᾳ (1st, dat. sg., time at which); βασιλέως (3rd -ευ-, gen. sg., possession); παῖς (3rd, nom. sg., subject); φύλαξιν (3rd, dat. pl., indirect object); πόλεως (3rd -ι-, gen. sg., possession); ἐλπίδα (3rd, acc. sg., direct object); σωτηρίας (1st, gen. sg., objective genitive). Adjectives: ταύτῃ (dat. sg. f., predicative with ἡμέρᾳ); μεγάλην (acc. sg. f., agreeing with ἐλπίδα).

Exam focus

  • Every mark in Component 01 depends on reading case endings correctly at speed; a misread ending is not a small slip but a mistranslated clause (AO1).
  • In Component 02 Section A you may be asked to state the case of a named word and explain why it is in that case; a full answer gives the case, the function, and the word that governs it (AO1).
  • Verbs governing the genitive or the dative are not exceptions to be memorised as a list but a productive pattern: expect ἀκούω with a genitive of the person heard and πείθομαι with a dative of the person obeyed (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Treating -α as a reliable feminine nominative: it is equally the neuter nominative and accusative plural (σώματα) and a third-declension accusative singular (φύλακα).
  • Correcting a Greek singular verb with a neuter plural subject into a plural, or supposing the text is corrupt.
  • Assuming a noun in -ος is masculine: ἡ ὁδός, ἡ νῆσος and ἡ νόσος are all feminine and all common.

Active revision

Take twenty lines of continuous Attic prose. For every noun, write down the declension, the case, the number and the single word in the sentence that governs the case. Where a form is genuinely ambiguous — a third-declension -α, a first-declension -ας, a dative plural in -οις that could be masculine or neuter — write both possibilities, then state which one the sentence forces and why. You should finish with a list of governing words, not a list of endings.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages (Department for Education)

§ 03

The noun phrase: the article, adjectives, adverbs, comparison and pronouns#

●●○StandardLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Accidence — the definite and indefinite article; adjectives of all standard and common irregular types; adverbs; comparison of adjectives and adverbs; pronouns and pronominal adjectives and related forms; cardinal numbers 1 to 1000 and ordinal numbers 1st to 10thLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — comparison, including the genitive of comparison

The article and the three types of adjective

Article and adjective endingsTable with 7 columns and 8 rows, Data: Case · Article m. · Article f. · Article n. · ἀγαθός (2-1-2) · ἀληθής (3rd decl.) · πᾶς (3-1-3); Nom. sg. · ὁ · ἡ · τό · ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν · ἀληθής, ἀληθές · πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν; Gen. sg. · τοῦ · τῆς · τοῦ · ἀγαθοῦ, ἀγαθῆς, ἀγαθοῦ · ἀληθοῦς · παντός, πάσης, παντός; Dat. sg. · τῷ · τῇ · τῷ · ἀγαθῷ, ἀγαθῇ, ἀγαθῷ · ἀληθεῖ · παντί, πάσῃ, παντί; Acc. sg. · τόν · τήν · τό · ἀγαθόν, ἀγαθήν, ἀγαθόν · ἀληθῆ, ἀληθές · πάντα, πᾶσαν, πᾶν; Nom. pl. · οἱ · αἱ · τά · ἀγαθοί, ἀγαθαί, ἀγαθά · ἀληθεῖς, ἀληθῆ · πάντες, πᾶσαι, πάντα; Gen. pl. · τῶν · τῶν · τῶν · ἀγαθῶν (all genders) · ἀληθῶν · πάντων, πασῶν, πάντων; Dat. pl. · τοῖς · ταῖς · τοῖς · ἀγαθοῖς, ἀγαθαῖς, ἀγαθοῖς · ἀληθέσι(ν) · πᾶσι(ν), πάσαις, πᾶσι(ν); Acc. pl. · τούς · τάς · τά · ἀγαθούς, ἀγαθάς, ἀγαθά · ἀληθεῖς, ἀληθῆ · πάντας, πάσας, πάντα, highlighted cell: ἀληθεῖς, ἀληθῆCASEARTICLE M.ARTICLE F.ARTICLE N.ἈΓΑΘΌΣ (2-1-2)ἈΛΗΘΉΣ (3RD DECL.)ΠΑ͂Σ (3-1-3)NOM. SG.ὁἡτόἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόνἀληθής, ἀληθέςπᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶνGEN. SG.τοῦτῆςτοῦἀγαθοῦ, ἀγαθῆς, ἀγαθοῦἀληθοῦςπαντός, πάσης, παντόςDAT. SG.τῷτῇτῷἀγαθῷ, ἀγαθῇ, ἀγαθῷἀληθεῖπαντί, πάσῃ, παντίACC. SG.τόντήντόἀγαθόν, ἀγαθήν, ἀγαθόνἀληθῆ, ἀληθέςπάντα, πᾶσαν, πᾶνNOM. PL.οἱαἱτάἀγαθοί, ἀγαθαί, ἀγαθάἀληθεῖς, ἀληθῆπάντες, πᾶσαι, πάνταGEN. PL.τῶντῶντῶνἀγαθῶν (all genders)ἀληθῶνπάντων, πασῶν, πάντωνDAT. PL.τοῖςταῖςτοῖςἀγαθοῖς, ἀγαθαῖς, ἀγαθοῖςἀληθέσι(ν)πᾶσι(ν), πάσαις, πᾶσι(ν)ACC. PL.τούςτάςτάἀγαθούς, ἀγαθάς, ἀγαθάἀληθεῖς, ἀληθῆπάντας, πάσας, πάντα
Fig. 3Everything in the noun phrase agrees with the noun in case, number and gender, so these three patterns are the whole adjective system. The emphasised cell shows the ambiguity that costs most marks: ἀληθεῖς is masculine or feminine, nominative or accusative plural, while ἀληθῆ is both the accusative singular masculine or feminine and the nominative or accusative plural neuter.

Key points

The definite article is the single most useful word in Greek and it does far more than English the. Its first job is ordinary: ὁ ἀνήρ, the man. Its second is to make anything at all into a noun — an adjective (οἱ ἀγαθοί, the good men; τὸ καλόν, the beautiful, beauty), an adverb (οἱ νῦν, the men of today), a prepositional phrase (οἱ ἐν τῇ πόλει, the people in the city), an infinitive (τὸ ἀποθνῄσκειν, dying, the act of dying) and a whole clause. Its third job is positional, and this is the one that decides meanings. A word standing between the article and its noun, or between a repeated article and the noun, is attributive and modifies the noun: ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ or ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ ἀγαθός, the good man. A word standing outside that bracket is predicative and makes an assertion: ἀγαθὸς ὁ ἀνήρ, the man is good. There is no verb in the second phrase and none is needed. Greek has no indefinite article; where English says a man, Greek writes ἀνήρ or, if indefiniteness matters, ἀνήρ τις.
Adjectives come in three shapes and every one of them agrees with its noun in case, number and gender. The commonest is the two-one-two type, which takes second-declension endings in the masculine and neuter and first-declension endings in the feminine: ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν. Where the stem ends in ε, ι or ρ the feminine has -α rather than -η: ἄξιος, ἀξία, ἄξιον. The second shape is the third-declension type in -ης, -ες, where the masculine and feminine are identical and the forms contract: ἀληθής, ἀληθές, genitive ἀληθοῦς. The third is the mixed three-one-three type, third declension in the masculine and neuter and first in the feminine, which includes the two highest-frequency adjectives in the language, πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν and every aorist and present active participle. A handful are irregular and must be learned whole: μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα and πολύς, πολλή, πολύ, both of which use a long stem everywhere except the masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular.
Adverbs are formed from adjectives by a mechanical rule that is worth stating as a rule rather than learning word by word: take the genitive plural, change the final -ων to -ως. σοφῶν gives σοφῶς, wisely; ἀληθῶν gives ἀληθῶς, truly; ταχέων gives ταχέως, quickly. Comparison of adjectives is normally by adding -τερος, -τέρα, -τερον for the comparative and -τατος, -τάτη, -τατον for the superlative to the masculine stem, with the linking vowel lengthened after a short syllable: σοφός, σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος. The comparative adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative adjective and the superlative adverb is the neuter accusative plural of the superlative: σοφώτερον, more wisely; σοφώτατα, most wisely. The commonest adjectives compare irregularly and simply have to be known: ἀγαθός gives ἀμείνων or βελτίων with ἄριστος or βέλτιστος; κακός gives κακίων or χείρων with κάκιστος or χείριστος; μέγας gives μείζων with μέγιστος; πολύς gives πλείων with πλεῖστος; ὀλίγος gives ἐλάττων with ἐλάχιστος.
Comparison in the syntax is where the marks are. Greek offers two constructions and they are not interchangeable in shape. The first uses ἤ, than, and puts the two compared items in the same case: σοφώτερός ἐστιν ἢ ὁ ἀδελφός, he is wiser than his brother. The second, the genitive of comparison, drops ἤ and puts the second item in the genitive: σοφώτερός ἐστι τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ, with exactly the same meaning. The genitive of comparison is specifically named in Appendix 5d, and it is a real trap in an unseen because a bare genitive next to a comparative looks at first like a possessive. A comparative can also stand without any second item at all, in which case it means rather or too: νεώτερός ἐστιν, he is rather young. The superlative with the article is the true superlative, the wisest; without the article it is often elative, very wise indeed. ὡς or ὅτι before a superlative intensifies it to the utmost: ὡς τάχιστα, as quickly as possible.
Pronouns are a small closed set that carries an enormous share of the meaning, and three points decide most readings. First, αὐτός has three distinct jobs settled by position: in the predicative position it is intensive, αὐτὸς ὁ βασιλεύς, the king himself; in the attributive position it means the same, ὁ αὐτὸς βασιλεύς; and in the oblique cases without an article it is the ordinary third-person pronoun, αὐτόν, him. Second, the demonstratives divide by distance and by discourse: οὗτος points to what is near or has just been said, ὅδε to what is here or is about to be said, ἐκεῖνος to what is remote. Like all demonstratives they stand in the predicative position, so οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ is this man, not this is the man. Third, the relative pronoun takes its gender and number from its antecedent but its case from its own clause, and it can be attracted into the case of the antecedent when that case is genitive or dative — a real phenomenon in Attic prose that must be recognised rather than emended. Cardinal numbers decline only up to four and then again from two hundred; ordinals, first to tenth, decline as ordinary two-one-two adjectives.

Pronouns and pronominal adjectives

The pronoun systemTable with 7 columns and 9 rows, Data: Pronoun · Nom. sg. · Gen. sg. · Dat. sg. · Acc. sg. · Nom. pl. · What it does; αὐτός · αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό · αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτοῦ · αὐτῷ, αὐτῇ, αὐτῷ · αὐτόν, αὐτήν, αὐτό · αὐτοί, αὐταί, αὐτά · Predicative: himself. Attributive: the same. Oblique alone: him, her, it; οὗτος · οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο · τούτου, ταύτης, τούτου · τούτῳ, ταύτῃ, τούτῳ · τοῦτον, ταύτην, τοῦτο · οὗτοι, αὗται, ταῦτα · This, the thing just mentioned; ὅδε · ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε · τοῦδε, τῆσδε, τοῦδε · τῷδε, τῇδε, τῷδε · τόνδε, τήνδε, τόδε · οἵδε, αἵδε, τάδε · This here, the thing about to be mentioned; ἐκεῖνος · ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο · ἐκείνου, ἐκείνης, ἐκείνου · ἐκείνῳ, ἐκείνῃ, ἐκείνῳ · ἐκεῖνον, ἐκείνην, ἐκεῖνο · ἐκεῖνοι, ἐκεῖναι, ἐκεῖνα · That, the remoter of two; ὅς · ὅς, ἥ, ὅ · οὗ, ἧς, οὗ · ᾧ, ᾗ, ᾧ · ὅν, ἥν, ὅ · οἵ, αἵ, ἅ · Who, which: gender from the antecedent, case from its own clause; τίς · τίς, τί · τίνος · τίνι · τίνα, τί · τίνες, τίνα · Who? what? which? — always accented; τις · τις, τι · τινός · τινί · τινά, τι · τινές, τινά · Someone, something, a certain — enclitic; ἐγώ, σύ · ἐγώ, σύ · ἐμοῦ (μου), σοῦ · ἐμοί (μοι), σοί · ἐμέ (με), σέ · ἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖς · First and second person; the emphatic forms are the accented ones; ἑαυτόν · (no nominative) · ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς · ἑαυτῷ, ἑαυτῇ · ἑαυτόν, ἑαυτήν · ἑαυτῶν · Reflexive: refers back to the subject of its own clause, highlighted cell: ὅς, ἥ, ὅPRONOUNNOM. SG.GEN. SG.DAT. SG.ACC. SG.NOM. PL.WHAT IT DOESΑΥ̓ΤΌΣαὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτόαὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτοῦαὐτῷ, αὐτῇ, αὐτῷαὐτόν, αὐτήν, αὐτόαὐτοί, αὐταί, αὐτάPredicative: himself.Attributive: the same.Oblique alone: him, her, itΟὟΤΟΣοὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτοτούτου, ταύτης, τούτουτούτῳ, ταύτῃ, τούτῳτοῦτον, ταύτην, τοῦτοοὗτοι, αὗται, ταῦταThis, the thing justmentionedὍΔΕὅδε, ἥδε, τόδετοῦδε, τῆσδε, τοῦδετῷδε, τῇδε, τῷδετόνδε, τήνδε, τόδεοἵδε, αἵδε, τάδεThis here, the thing aboutto be mentionedἘΚΕΙ͂ΝΟΣἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνοἐκείνου, ἐκείνης, ἐκείνουἐκείνῳ, ἐκείνῃ, ἐκείνῳἐκεῖνον, ἐκείνην, ἐκεῖνοἐκεῖνοι, ἐκεῖναι, ἐκεῖναThat, the remoter of twoὍΣὅς, ἥ, ὅοὗ, ἧς, οὗᾧ, ᾗ, ᾧὅν, ἥν, ὅοἵ, αἵ, ἅWho, which: gender from theantecedent, case from itsown clauseΤΊΣτίς, τίτίνοςτίνιτίνα, τίτίνες, τίναWho? what? which? — alwaysaccentedΤΙΣτις, τιτινόςτινίτινά, τιτινές, τινάSomeone, something, acertain — encliticἘΓΏ, ΣΎἐγώ, σύἐμοῦ (μου), σοῦἐμοί (μοι), σοίἐμέ (με), σέἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖςFirst and second person; theemphatic forms are theaccented onesἙΑΥΤΌΝ(no nominative)ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆςἑαυτῷ, ἑαυτῇἑαυτόν, ἑαυτήνἑαυτῶνReflexive: refers back tothe subject of its ownclause
Fig. 4Three forms in this table are separated from other words only by an accent or a breathing, which is why the specification asks learners to distinguish identical spellings by accentuation. The emphasised cell is the sharpest case: the relative ὅ differs from the article ὁ by its accent alone, and both carry a rough breathing.
Worked example

Position, agreement and comparison in four short sentences

Constructed teaching Greek, not a quotation. Translate each, and justify every decision from the article's position or from the agreement. (a) ὁ σοφὸς ἀνὴρ τοὺς νόμους φυλάττει. (b) σοφὸς ὁ ἀνήρ. (c) αὐτὸς ὁ στρατηγὸς τὰ αὐτὰ ἔλεγεν. (d) οὗτος ὁ νεανίας σοφώτερός ἐστι τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ.

  1. 01(a) attributive position

    σοφός stands between the article ὁ and its noun ἀνήρ, which is the attributive position, so it modifies the noun and the phrase is a noun phrase, not a sentence: the wise man. The sentence's verb is φυλάττει, third singular present, and τοὺς νόμους is accusative plural masculine, the object. Translate: the wise man guards the laws.

  2. 02(b) predicative position

    Here σοφός stands outside the article-noun bracket, which is the predicative position. In the predicative position an adjective makes an assertion about the noun, and the verb ἐστί may simply be left out. Translate: the man is wise. Nothing else in the two sentences differs — only where the adjective stands.

  3. 03(c) the two jobs of αὐτός

    The first αὐτός stands before the article and is therefore predicative in position, so it is intensive: the general himself. The second, τὰ αὐτά, stands between the article and nothing at all — the article has substantivised it — and in the attributive position αὐτός means the same, so τὰ αὐτά is the same things. The verb ἔλεγεν is imperfect, was saying or kept saying. Translate: the general himself kept saying the same things.

  4. 04(d) demonstrative position and comparison

    οὗτος stands outside the bracket ὁ νεανίας, which is where demonstratives always stand, so it is nonetheless attributive in sense: this young man. νεανίας is a first-declension masculine, nominative singular, the subject. σοφώτερος is the comparative of σοφός, nominative singular masculine, agreeing with the subject. τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ is a bare genitive with no ἤ, which is the genitive of comparison named in Appendix 5d.

  5. 05The trap in (d)

    A candidate reading quickly takes τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ as a possessive genitive and produces this young man is his brother's wiser, which is not English and not Greek. The signal is the comparative: whenever a comparative adjective or adverb is followed by a bare genitive with no ἤ and no noun for it to possess, the genitive is the second term of the comparison. The equivalent with ἤ would be σοφώτερός ἐστιν ἢ ὁ ἀδελφός, with both terms in the nominative.

Result: (a) The wise man guards the laws. (b) The man is wise. (c) The general himself kept saying the same things. (d) This young man is wiser than his brother. The deciding evidence is positional throughout: attributive in (a), predicative in (b), both in (c), and in (d) a genitive of comparison identified by the comparative that governs it.

Exam focus

  • The attributive against the predicative position is examined constantly, because it distinguishes a phrase from a sentence and a demonstrative from an intensive (AO1).
  • A bare genitive beside a comparative is a genitive of comparison, which Appendix 5d names explicitly; translating it as a possessive produces nonsense that the examiner has planned for (AO1).
  • Component 02 Section A grammar questions frequently ask which noun an adjective or participle agrees with, and the expected answer names the noun and the three points of agreement (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Translating οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ as this is the man, forgetting that demonstratives are always predicative in position but attributive in sense.
  • Missing the article that turns an adjective, an infinitive or a whole phrase into a noun, and then looking for a subject that is not there.
  • Taking the neuter plural of an adjective as an accusative when it is the subject, or vice versa — the two are identical and only the verb decides.

Active revision

From a page of Attic prose, list every article on the page and say what it is doing: making an ordinary definite noun phrase, substantivising something, or bracketing an attributive phrase. Then find every comparative and superlative, and for each state whether the comparison is expressed with ἤ, with a genitive of comparison, or not at all. Finally, take five adjectives from the page and give the corresponding adverb, comparative adverb and superlative adverb.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification (Cambridge OCR)

§ 04

The verb: aspect, tense, mood and voice in the ω-conjugation#

●●●AdvancedLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Accidence — verbs of all standard types, common irregular, impersonal and defective verbs from both conjugations in all moods, voices and tensesLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — direct statement, question (including deliberative) and command; prohibitions, exhortations and wishes

λύω across the tenses, moods and voices

Synopsis of λύω, first person singular unless statedTable with 8 columns and 6 rows, Data: Tense · Indicative act. · Subjunctive act. · Optative act. · Imperative act. (2 sg.) · Infinitive act. · Participle act. (m.) · Middle and passive ind.; Present · λύω · λύω · λύοιμι · λῦε · λύειν · λύων · λύομαι; Imperfect · ἔλυον · — · — · — · — · — · ἐλυόμην; Future · λύσω · — · λύσοιμι · — · λύσειν · λύσων · λύσομαι mid., λυθήσομαι pass.; Aorist · ἔλυσα · λύσω · λύσαιμι · λῦσον · λῦσαι · λύσας · ἐλυσάμην mid., ἐλύθην pass.; Perfect · λέλυκα · λελύκω · λελύκοιμι · λέλυκε · λελυκέναι · λελυκώς · λέλυμαι; Pluperfect · ἐλελύκη · — · — · — · — · — · ἐλελύμην, highlighted cell: λύσωTENSEINDICATIVE ACT.SUBJUNCTIVE ACT.OPTATIVE ACT.IMPERATIVE ACT. (2SG.)INFINITIVE ACT.PARTICIPLE ACT. (M.)MIDDLE AND PASSIVEIND.PRESENTλύωλύωλύοιμιλῦελύεινλύωνλύομαιIMPERFECTἔλυον—————ἐλυόμηνFUTUREλύσω—λύσοιμι—λύσεινλύσωνλύσομαι mid., λυθήσομαιpass.AORISTἔλυσαλύσωλύσαιμιλῦσονλῦσαιλύσαςἐλυσάμην mid., ἐλύθην pass.PERFECTλέλυκαλελύκωλελύκοιμιλέλυκελελυκέναιλελυκώςλέλυμαιPLUPERFECTἐλελύκη—————ἐλελύμην
Fig. 5Read the dashes as information: the imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indicative because they are purely temporal, and the future has no subjunctive or imperative for the same reason. The emphasised cell is the collision that costs most marks — the aorist active subjunctive λύσω is spelt exactly like the future active indicative λύσω, and only the clause it stands in can tell them apart.

Key points

A Greek verb form encodes five things at once — person, number, tense, mood and voice — and the single most useful shift a candidate can make is to stop thinking of tense as time and start thinking of it as aspect. The present stem expresses an action viewed as going on or repeated; the aorist stem expresses it viewed simply as a whole event; the perfect stem expresses a state resulting from a completed action. Outside the indicative, that is all these stems mean: they carry no time at all. ἵνα λύῃ and ἵνα λύσῃ both mean in order that he may release, and the difference between them is that the first sees the releasing as a process and the second as an act. Time enters only in the indicative, where it is marked by the augment: ἔλυον, ἔλυσα and ἐλελύκη all begin with the ἐ- that means past.
The forms themselves are built from four visible pieces. The augment, ἐ- prefixed to a consonant-initial stem or a lengthening of an initial vowel (ἄγω gives ἦγον, οἰκέω gives ᾤκουν), marks past time in the indicative only. Reduplication, the initial consonant plus ε (λύω gives λέλυκα, γράφω gives γέγραφα), marks the perfect system in every mood. The tense marker sits between stem and endings: -σ- for future and first aorist, -θη- for the aorist passive, -κ- for the perfect active. The endings themselves come in two families, primary for the present, future and perfect, secondary for the imperfect, aorist and pluperfect, each with an active and a middle set. Learn to see a form as a sum of these pieces and an unfamiliar verb becomes readable: ἐ-παιδεύ-θη-σαν is augment, stem, aorist passive marker, secondary ending, and therefore they were educated.
The three voices are active, middle and passive, and the middle is the one with no English equivalent. It says that the subject is somehow involved in or benefits from its own action: λύω is I release, λύομαι is I release for myself, I ransom. Some middles are reciprocal or reflexive in force, many are simply the only form a verb has (the deponents: βούλομαι, γίγνομαι, ἔρχομαι, μάχομαι, ἀφικνέομαι), and a few change meaning between voices, which is examinable: ἄρχω is I rule but ἄρχομαι is I begin; παύω is I stop someone but παύομαι is I cease. Only the future and the aorist have distinct passive forms; in every other tense the middle and passive endings are identical and only the sense of the sentence decides which you are looking at.
The moods divide the labour of the sentence. The indicative states or asks about fact. The subjunctive, formed by lengthening the linking vowel to ω or η, expresses what is willed or anticipated, and it is the mood of the exhortation (ἴωμεν, let us go), the deliberative question (τί ποιῶμεν; what are we to do?), the prohibition in the aorist (μὴ τοῦτο ποιήσῃς, do not do this) and the purpose, fear and indefinite clauses in primary sequence. The optative, marked by -οι- or -αι-, expresses what is merely possible or wished, and in Attic prose it also does duty for the subjunctive and even the indicative in historic sequence: εἴθε ἔλθοι, if only he would come. The imperative commands directly, with a present for a general or continuing order (λῦε, keep releasing) and an aorist for a specific one (λῦσον, release). Negation is the fourth member of this system: οὐ negates statements of fact, μή negates everything else — commands, prohibitions, wishes, purpose clauses, conditions and infinitives of every kind.
The contract verbs are not a separate conjugation but the ω-conjugation with a stem ending in a vowel, and the contractions are perfectly regular once the three patterns are known. Verbs in -άω contract to ω and ᾳ: τιμῶ, τιμᾷς, τιμᾷ, τιμῶμεν, τιμᾶτε, τιμῶσι. Verbs in -έω contract to ει and ου: ποιῶ, ποιεῖς, ποιεῖ, ποιοῦμεν, ποιεῖτε, ποιοῦσι. Verbs in -όω contract to ου and οι: δηλῶ, δηλοῖς, δηλοῖ, δηλοῦμεν, δηλοῦτε, δηλοῦσι. The contraction affects only the present and imperfect; everywhere else the stem vowel lengthens before the tense marker and the verb behaves normally: τιμήσω, ἐτίμησα, τετίμηκα; ποιήσω, ἐποίησα, πεποίηκα; δηλώσω, ἐδήλωσα, δεδήλωκα. The one thing to watch is the circumflex, which sits on the contracted syllable and is often the only visible sign that a contraction has happened at all.
Worked example

Parsing five forms and producing five more

Constructed teaching exercise in the Component 02 Section A style. Part one: parse ἐπαιδεύθησαν, λύσῃς, ἐποιοῦμεν, γενέσθαι and πεπαυμένος fully. Part two: give the aorist active infinitive of παύω, the present active participle nominative singular feminine of τιμάω, the second person singular aorist active imperative of γράφω, the third person singular present optative active of ποιέω, and the first person plural imperfect middle of φοβέομαι.

  1. 01ἐπαιδεύθησαν

    Take it apart from the outside in. The initial ἐ- is an augment, so this is an indicative past tense. The stem is παιδευ-, from παιδεύω, I educate. The -θη- is the aorist passive marker. The ending -σαν is third person plural secondary. Answer: third person plural, aorist, indicative, passive of παιδεύω — they were educated.

  2. 02λύσῃς

    No augment, so not a past indicative. The -σ- is the tense marker of the future or the first aorist; the long vowel η in the ending is the mark of the subjunctive; the -ς is second person singular. There is no future subjunctive in Greek, so this must be the aorist. Answer: second person singular, aorist, subjunctive, active of λύω. Note that it carries no time at all: it will mean that you release, viewed as one act, whether the clause it sits in is present or past.

  3. 03ἐποιοῦμεν

    The augment ἐ- gives a past indicative. The stem is ποιε-, a contract verb in -έω, and ε plus ο contracts to ου, hence -οῦμεν with its circumflex on the contracted syllable. The ending -μεν is first person plural, of the secondary set. Answer: first person plural, imperfect, indicative, active of ποιέω — we were making, we used to make. The imperfect is a present stem with an augment, so it carries both past time and the ongoing aspect.

  4. 04γενέσθαι and πεπαυμένος

    γενέσθαι has no augment, ends in -σθαι, which is a middle or passive infinitive ending, and shows the aorist stem γεν- of γίγνομαι. Answer: aorist infinitive middle of γίγνομαι, to become, to be born — a deponent, so the middle form has active meaning. πεπαυμένος shows reduplication πε-, the stem παυ-, and the middle or passive participle ending -μενος with no tense marker at all, which is the shape of the perfect middle and passive participle. Answer: perfect participle middle or passive, nominative singular masculine, of παύω — having ceased, or having been stopped.

  5. 05Part two, produced with the pieces named

    Aorist active infinitive of παύω: the first aorist infinitive is stem plus -σαι, so παῦσαι. Present active participle feminine nominative singular of τιμάω: the uncontracted τιμάουσα contracts α plus ου to ω, giving τιμῶσα. Second person singular aorist active imperative of γράφω: the aorist ἔγραψα is a first aorist, so the imperative is stem plus -σον, giving γράψον. Third person singular present optative active of ποιέω: the optative marker -οι- with a third singular ending -η gives ποιοίη, or in the plural forms ποιοῖεν. First person plural imperfect middle of φοβέομαι: the augment plus the contracted stem plus the secondary middle ending -μεθα gives ἐφοβούμεθα.

  6. 06How to write it in the examination

    Each answer needs the five categories and the dictionary form, in a fixed order, with no prose around it: person, number, tense, mood, voice, from which verb. Marks are lost by giving four of the five, by giving the meaning instead of the parsing, or by naming the tense as past when the form is a non-indicative aorist.

Result: Parsings: ἐπαιδεύθησαν — 3 pl. aorist indicative passive of παιδεύω, they were educated. λύσῃς — 2 sg. aorist subjunctive active of λύω. ἐποιοῦμεν — 1 pl. imperfect indicative active of ποιέω, we were making. γενέσθαι — aorist infinitive middle of γίγνομαι, to become. πεπαυμένος — perfect participle middle or passive, nom. sg. m., of παύω. Produced forms: παῦσαι; τιμῶσα; γράψον; ποιοίη; ἐφοβούμεθα.

Exam focus

  • Aspect, not time, is the right question to ask of any non-indicative form; a grammar question asking why the aorist subjunctive is used wants an answer about the action being viewed as a single whole (AO1).
  • The distinction between οὐ and μή is a reliable diagnostic in an unseen: μή in a clause tells you the clause is not a statement of fact before you have parsed the verb (AO1).
  • Component 02 Section A regularly asks for a named form to be produced or identified; the expected answer gives person, number, tense, mood and voice, in that order, and then the dictionary form of the verb (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Translating an aorist subjunctive or aorist infinitive as a past tense: outside the indicative the aorist carries aspect, not time.
  • Reading a middle form as a passive because the endings are the same in the present, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect — only the future and aorist distinguish them.
  • Missing an augment hidden in a lengthened initial vowel (ἄγω to ἦγον, ἐλπίζω to ἤλπιζον, ὁρμάω to ὥρμων) and reading a past tense as a present.

Active revision

Take one page of Attic prose and parse every finite verb on it in the fixed order person, number, tense, mood, voice, then dictionary form. For each non-indicative form, add one sentence saying what its stem contributes as aspect and why the author chose that aspect rather than the other. Then find every negative on the page and state whether it is οὐ or μή and what that tells you about the clause it stands in.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages (Department for Education)

§ 05

The -μι conjugation, irregular principal parts, participles and infinitives#

●●●AdvancedLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Accidence — verbs from both conjugations in all moods, voices and tenses; common irregular, impersonal and defective verbsLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — uses of the infinitive (as subject, as complement, prolative and with the definite article); uses of the participle (including genitive absolute); verbal nouns and adjectives

The -μι conjugation and the irregular verbs built like it

The second conjugationTable with 7 columns and 9 rows, Data: Verb · Present 1 sg. · Present 3 pl. · Aorist ind. · Aorist inf. · Aorist part. m. · Sense; δίδωμι · δίδωμι · διδόασι(ν) · ἔδωκα · δοῦναι · δούς, δοῦσα, δόν · give; τίθημι · τίθημι · τιθέασι(ν) · ἔθηκα · θεῖναι · θείς, θεῖσα, θέν · put, place, make; ἵστημι · ἵστημι · ἱστᾶσι(ν) · ἔστησα trans., ἔστην intrans. · στῆσαι / στῆναι · στήσας / στάς, στᾶσα, στάν · set up; (intransitive) stand; ἵημι · ἵημι · ἱᾶσι(ν) · ἧκα · εἷναι · εἵς, εἷσα, ἕν · send, let go; δείκνυμι · δείκνυμι · δεικνύασι(ν) · ἔδειξα · δεῖξαι · δείξας · show; εἰμί · εἰμί · εἰσί(ν) · no aorist; imperfect ἦν · εἶναι · ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν · be; εἶμι · εἶμι · ἴασι(ν) · no aorist; imperfect ᾖα · ἰέναι · ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν · go, shall go; φημί · φημί · φασί(ν) · imperfect ἔφην is commoner · φάναι · φάς, φᾶσα, φάν · say; οἶδα · οἶδα · ἴσασι(ν) · perfect with present sense; pluperfect ᾔδη · εἰδέναι · εἰδώς, εἰδυῖα, εἰδός · know, highlighted cell: ἔστησα trans., ἔστην intrans.VERBPRESENT 1 SG.PRESENT 3 PL.AORIST IND.AORIST INF.AORIST PART. M.SENSEΔΊΔΩΜΙδίδωμιδιδόασι(ν)ἔδωκαδοῦναιδούς, δοῦσα, δόνgiveΤΊΘΗΜΙτίθημιτιθέασι(ν)ἔθηκαθεῖναιθείς, θεῖσα, θένput, place, makeἽΣΤΗΜΙἵστημιἱστᾶσι(ν)ἔστησα trans., ἔστηνintrans.στῆσαι / στῆναιστήσας / στάς, στᾶσα, στάνset up; (intransitive) standἽΗΜΙἵημιἱᾶσι(ν)ἧκαεἷναιεἵς, εἷσα, ἕνsend, let goΔΕΊΚΝΥΜΙδείκνυμιδεικνύασι(ν)ἔδειξαδεῖξαιδείξαςshowΕἸΜΊεἰμίεἰσί(ν)no aorist; imperfect ἦνεἶναιὤν, οὖσα, ὄνbeΕἾΜΙεἶμιἴασι(ν)no aorist; imperfect ᾖαἰέναιἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόνgo, shall goΦΗΜΊφημίφασί(ν)imperfect ἔφην is commonerφάναιφάς, φᾶσα, φάνsayΟἾΔΑοἶδαἴσασι(ν)perfect with present sense;pluperfect ᾔδηεἰδέναιεἰδώς, εἰδυῖα, εἰδόςknow
Fig. 6These stems attach their endings directly, with no linking vowel, and shorten in the plural — which is why the third person plural is printed here beside the first singular. The emphasised cell is the split that reverses meaning: ἵστημι has a transitive weak aorist ἔστησα, I set up, and an intransitive strong aorist ἔστην, I stood, and its compound καθίστημι behaves the same way throughout fourth-century prose.

Key points

Appendix 5d requires verbs from both conjugations, and the second conjugation — the -μι verbs — is small, irregular and unavoidable, because it contains some of the highest-frequency words in Greek. Its distinguishing habit is that the endings attach directly to the stem with no linking vowel, and that the stem itself alternates between a long grade in the singular and a short grade elsewhere: δίδωμι, δίδως, δίδωσι but δίδομεν, δίδοτε, διδόασι; τίθημι, τίθης, τίθησι but τίθεμεν, τίθετε, τιθέασι; ἵστημι, ἵστης, ἵστησι but ἵσταμεν, ἵστατε, ἱστᾶσι. The aorists are equally irregular and equally common: ἔδωκα, ἔθηκα, ἧκα are so-called kappa aorists whose plurals drop the κ (ἔδομεν, ἔθεμεν, εἷμεν), while the aorist infinitives δοῦναι, θεῖναι, στῆναι and the aorist participles δούς, θείς, στάς are forms you simply have to recognise on sight, because they are unlike anything in the ω-conjugation.
ἵστημι deserves separate treatment because it is the one -μι verb whose voice and transitivity split down the middle of its own paradigm. The present, imperfect, future and first (weak) aorist are transitive: ἵστημι, I set up; ἔστησα, I set up. But the second (strong) aorist ἔστην, the perfect ἕστηκα and the pluperfect εἱστήκη are intransitive, and the perfect has present force: ἕστηκα means I stand, not I have stood. The compound καθίστημι behaves the same way and is everywhere in fourth-century prose: κατέστησα means I appointed, κατέστην means I was appointed or I settled into a state. Getting the transitivity wrong reverses who does what to whom, which is a whole-clause error in a translation.
Beyond the -μι verbs sits the irregular vocabulary that no rule will predict: the principal parts. Every Greek verb can be reduced to six forms — present, future, aorist active, perfect active, perfect middle and passive, aorist passive — and for regular verbs these are derivable. For the commonest verbs they are not, and they must be learned as sets because the examiner will use them: λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον, εἴληφα, εἴλημμαι, ἐλήφθην; φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα, ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην; λέγω, ἐρῶ, εἶπον, εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι, ἐρρήθην; ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον, ἑώρακα, ἑώραμαι, ὤφθην; ἔρχομαι, εἶμι, ἦλθον, ἐλήλυθα. Two dozen such verbs cover the great majority of the irregular forms in an unseen. The defectives and impersonals named by the specification belong here too: δεῖ, it is necessary, and χρή, one ought, take an accusative and infinitive; ἔξεστι and δοκεῖ take a dative and infinitive.
The participle is where Greek differs most from English, and it is the single largest source of both marks and errors in an unseen. Greek has a participle for every tense and voice, it declines like an adjective, and it can do three quite different jobs. Attributively, inside the article-noun bracket, it is a relative clause: οἱ φεύγοντες στρατιῶται, the soldiers who are fleeing. Circumstantially, outside the bracket, it modifies the verb and expresses time, cause, condition, concession or manner, which English must render with a subordinate clause: ταῦτα ἀκούσας ἀπῆλθεν, having heard this, or because he had heard this, he went away. Supplementarily, it completes the sense of a verb of perceiving, knowing, showing, beginning or ceasing: οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα, I know that he came; παύομαι λέγων, I stop speaking. The genitive absolute is a circumstantial participle whose subject is not a constituent of the main clause, and both noun and participle stand in the genitive: τούτων γενομένων, when these things had happened.
Infinitives and verbal adjectives complete the system. The infinitive can be the subject of an impersonal verb (δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀπελθεῖν), the complement of another verb (βούλομαι μανθάνειν), prolative after verbs of ability and willingness, or, with the article, a full verbal noun that declines and can take a preposition: τὸ ἀποθνῄσκειν, dying; διὰ τὸ φοβεῖσθαι, because of being afraid. It also carries indirect statement after verbs of saying and thinking, where the subject of the reported clause goes into the accusative — unless it is identical to the subject of the main verb, in which case it is left out and any predicate stands in the nominative. The verbal adjectives are two: the type in -τος is a simple adjective of possibility (ὁρατός, visible), while the type in -τέος expresses obligation and takes a dative of the agent, in either a personal construction agreeing with its noun (ἡ πόλις ὠφελητέα ἐστίν) or an impersonal one in the neuter (ὠφελητέον ἐστὶ τὴν πόλιν, the city must be helped).

Participles and infinitives by tense and voice

The non-finite system of λύωTable with 5 columns and 8 rows, Data: Tense and voice · Participle, nom. sg. · Gen. sg. m. · Infinitive · Typical force; Present active · λύων, λύουσα, λῦον · λύοντος · λύειν · while releasing; the act in progress; Present mid./pass. · λυόμενος, λυομένη, λυόμενον · λυομένου · λύεσθαι · while being released, or releasing for oneself; Future active · λύσων, λύσουσα, λῦσον · λύσοντος · λύσειν · about to release; purpose after a verb of motion; Aorist active · λύσας, λύσασα, λῦσαν · λύσαντος · λῦσαι · having released; the act as a single whole; Aorist middle · λυσάμενος, λυσαμένη, λυσάμενον · λυσαμένου · λύσασθαι · having released for oneself; Aorist passive · λυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθέν · λυθέντος · λυθῆναι · having been released; Perfect active · λελυκώς, λελυκυῖα, λελυκός · λελυκότος · λελυκέναι · having released, with the result standing; Perfect mid./pass. · λελυμένος, λελυμένη, λελυμένον · λελυμένου · λελύσθαι · in the state of having been released, highlighted cell: λυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθένTENSE AND VOICEPARTICIPLE, NOM. SG.GEN. SG. M.INFINITIVETYPICAL FORCEPRESENT ACTIVEλύων, λύουσα, λῦονλύοντοςλύεινwhile releasing; the act inprogressPRESENT MID./PASS.λυόμενος, λυομένη, λυόμενονλυομένουλύεσθαιwhile being released, orreleasing for oneselfFUTURE ACTIVEλύσων, λύσουσα, λῦσονλύσοντοςλύσεινabout to release; purposeafter a verb of motionAORIST ACTIVEλύσας, λύσασα, λῦσανλύσαντοςλῦσαιhaving released; the act asa single wholeAORIST MIDDLEλυσάμενος, λυσαμένη,λυσάμενονλυσαμένουλύσασθαιhaving released for oneselfAORIST PASSIVEλυθείς, λυθεῖσα, λυθένλυθέντοςλυθῆναιhaving been releasedPERFECT ACTIVEλελυκώς, λελυκυῖα, λελυκόςλελυκότοςλελυκέναιhaving released, with theresult standingPERFECT MID./PASS.λελυμένος, λελυμένη,λελυμένονλελυμένουλελύσθαιin the state of having beenreleased
Fig. 7The genitive singular column is there for a practical reason: it shows the stem to which every other case ending is added, and it is the form from which the whole declension of a participle is predictable. The emphasised cell is the aorist passive participle, which is misread more often than any other form in an unseen because its -εις ending looks like a second-declension plural.
Worked example

Four participles, one genitive absolute and one verbal adjective

Constructed teaching Greek, not a quotation: τῶν πολεμίων προσιόντων, ὁ στρατηγὸς τοὺς φεύγοντας στρατιώτας ἰδὼν ἔπαυσε φοβουμένους, καὶ εἶπεν ὅτι ἡ πόλις σῳστέα εἴη πᾶσιν. Classify every non-finite form, then translate.

  1. 01τῶν πολεμίων προσιόντων

    Two genitives plural, a noun and a participle, agreeing with each other and with nothing else in the sentence: that is a genitive absolute. προσιόντων is the present active participle of πρόσειμι, the compound of εἶμι, so the aspect is ongoing and the force temporal: while the enemy were approaching. Note that the participle of εἶμι in a compound keeps its own stem ἰ-, which is why the form looks unfamiliar even though the verb is common.

  2. 02τοὺς φεύγοντας στρατιώτας

    The participle stands between the article and its noun, which is the attributive position, so it is equivalent to a relative clause: the soldiers who were fleeing. It is accusative plural masculine, agreeing with στρατιώτας, and it is the object of the participle ἰδών. Rendering it as an English relative clause is what the examiner expects; a bare fleeing works but is thinner.

  3. 03ἰδών

    This is the aorist active participle of ὁράω, whose aorist is the suppletive εἶδον — one of the principal-part sets that no rule will predict. It stands outside any article-noun bracket, so it is circumstantial, and the aorist aspect places its action as a completed whole before the main verb: having seen, or more idiomatically when he saw. It is nominative singular masculine, agreeing with the subject ὁ στρατηγός.

  4. 04ἔπαυσε φοβουμένους

    παύω in the active means I stop somebody else, and it takes a supplementary participle to say what it is they are stopped from doing. φοβουμένους is the present participle of the deponent φοβέομαι, accusative plural masculine, agreeing with the understood object, the same soldiers. So the sense is he stopped them being afraid. This is the third of the three participial jobs: not attributive, not circumstantial, but completing the sense of the governing verb.

  5. 05ὅτι ἡ πόλις σῳστέα εἴη

    ὅτι introduces indirect statement, and because the main verb εἶπεν is a past tense the mood inside the reported clause has shifted into the optative of historic sequence: εἴη is the third person singular present optative of εἰμί. σῳστέα is the verbal adjective in -τέος of σῴζω, feminine nominative singular, agreeing with ἡ πόλις: this is the personal construction, so the sense is the city must be saved. The dative πᾶσιν is the dative of the agent that this verbal adjective always takes: by everyone.

  6. 06Assemble the English

    Take the genitive absolute first as an English temporal clause, then the main clause with the circumstantial participle rendered as a when clause, then the supplementary participle as an English gerund, and finally the reported statement with the optative rendered as an ordinary past-tense subordinate clause, because English has no equivalent mood shift.

Result: While the enemy were approaching, the general, when he saw the soldiers who were fleeing, stopped them being afraid, and said that the city had to be saved by everyone. Classification: προσιόντων, present active participle in a genitive absolute, temporal; φεύγοντας, present active participle, attributive, equivalent to a relative clause; ἰδών, aorist active participle, circumstantial, temporal; φοβουμένους, present middle participle, supplementary after παύω; εἴη, present optative of εἰμί in historic sequence; σῳστέα, verbal adjective in -τέος, personal construction with a dative of agent.

Exam focus

  • Participles carry a large share of the marks in an unseen; the expected translation makes the relationship explicit in English, choosing between when, because, although and if rather than leaving a bare -ing phrase (AO1).
  • A genitive absolute is identified by a noun and participle both in the genitive with no other genitive to attach to; naming it correctly in a Component 02 grammar answer is worth stating alongside its force (AO1).
  • The intransitive forms of ἵστημι and its compounds are common in fourth-century prose narrative, exactly the register from which the unseen prose is taken (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Translating every circumstantial participle as having done: the participle expresses relationship, and the examiner rewards the candidate who commits to when, because, although or if.
  • Reading ἕστηκα as a past tense: it is a perfect with present meaning, I stand.
  • Missing that the subject of an accusative-and-infinitive is dropped when it is the same as the subject of the main verb, and then hunting for a missing accusative that was never there.

Active revision

From a page of narrative prose, list every participle and classify it as attributive, circumstantial or supplementary. For each circumstantial participle, write out two different English renderings — one temporal and one causal or concessive — and then decide which the context supports, giving your reason. Separately, find every infinitive on the page and say which of the four uses named in Appendix 5d it exemplifies.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification (Cambridge OCR)

§ 06

Syntax: case usage, negation, subordinate clauses and the uses of ἄν#

●●●AdvancedLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — standard patterns of case usage; negation, including compound negatives; uses of ἄνLPOCR H444 Appendix 5d Syntax — subordinate clauses: indirect statement (including extended reported speech), question, command and prohibition; description; purpose; result; conditional; causal; temporal; indefinite; subordinate clauses within indirect speech; fearing, prevention and precaution; concessive; comparative

The uses of ἄν

ἄν: where it stands and what it doesTable with 4 columns and 8 rows, Data: Where ἄν stands · The construction · Force in English · Example; With the optative, main clause · ἄν plus optative · would, might, could — the potential optative · λέγοι ἄν τις — someone might say; With a past indicative, main clause · ἄν plus imperfect or aorist indicative · would be doing, would have done · οὐκ ἂν ἐποίησε τοῦτο — he would not have done this; In the apodosis of an unreal condition · εἰ plus past indicative, then ἄν plus past indicative · if he had …, he would have … · εἰ ταῦτα ᾔδει, οὐκ ἂν ἦλθεν — if he had known this, he would not have come; Fused with a conjunction, before a subjunctive · ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, ὃς ἄν, ὅπου ἄν · whenever, whoever, if ever — indefinite or prospective · ὃς ἂν τοῦτο ποιῇ, κολάζεται — whoever does this is punished; In a future-more-vivid protasis · ἐάν plus subjunctive, then future indicative · if he does …, he will … · ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, ὀψόμεθα αὐτόν — if he comes, we shall see him; With the infinitive · ἄν plus infinitive in reported speech · stands for a potential optative or unreal indicative of the direct form · νομίζει αὐτὸν ἂν ἐλθεῖν — he thinks that he would have come; With the participle · ἄν plus participle · the same, where the report is carried by a participle · οἶδα αὐτὸν ἂν ἐλθόντα — I know that he would have come; Never · with the imperative, with the future indicative, or in a purpose clause · the particle simply does not occur · no example exists, highlighted cell: ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, ὃς ἄν, ὅπου ἄνWHERE ἌΝ STANDSTHE CONSTRUCTIONFORCE IN ENGLISHEXAMPLEWITH THE OPTATIVE,MAIN CLAUSEἄν plus optativewould, might, could — thepotential optativeλέγοι ἄν τις — someone mightsayWITH A PASTINDICATIVE, MAINCLAUSEἄν plus imperfect or aoristindicativewould be doing, would havedoneοὐκ ἂν ἐποίησε τοῦτο — hewould not have done thisIN THE APODOSIS OFAN UNREALCONDITIONεἰ plus past indicative,then ἄν plus past indicativeif he had …, he would have …εἰ ταῦτα ᾔδει, οὐκ ἂν ἦλθεν— if he had known this, hewould not have comeFUSED WITH ACONJUNCTION,BEFORE ASUBJUNCTIVEἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, ὃς ἄν,ὅπου ἄνwhenever, whoever, if ever —indefinite or prospectiveὃς ἂν τοῦτο ποιῇ, κολάζεται— whoever does this ispunishedIN A FUTURE-MORE-VIVID PROTASISἐάν plus subjunctive, thenfuture indicativeif he does …, he will …ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, ὀψόμεθα αὐτόν — ifhe comes, we shall see himWITH THEINFINITIVEἄν plus infinitive inreported speechstands for a potentialoptative or unrealindicative of the directformνομίζει αὐτὸν ἂν ἐλθεῖν — hethinks that he would havecomeWITH THEPARTICIPLEἄν plus participlethe same, where the reportis carried by a participleοἶδα αὐτὸν ἂν ἐλθόντα — Iknow that he would have comeNEVERwith the imperative, withthe future indicative, or ina purpose clausethe particle simply does notoccurno example exists
Fig. 8The particle has no meaning of its own; it takes its force entirely from the mood beside it, which is why it must be read together with its verb rather than translated. The emphasised cell is the group that accounts for most occurrences in prose: the fused conjunctions, where ἄν has disappeared into ἐάν, ὅταν and ἐπειδάν and is easy to read past.

Key points

Subordination is where Appendix 5d is longest and where the A-Level differs most from GCSE, because the list runs to thirteen named clause types plus subordinate clauses inside indirect speech. They divide into two groups by what decides their mood. In the first group the mood is fixed by the clause type itself: result clauses with ὥστε take the infinitive when the result is a natural consequence and the indicative when it actually happened; causal clauses with ὅτι, ἐπεί or διότι take the indicative; relative clauses of simple description take the indicative. In the second group the mood is decided by sequence — whether the governing verb is primary (present, future, perfect) or historic (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect). Purpose clauses with ἵνα, ὅπως or ὡς take the subjunctive after a primary verb and may shift to the optative after a historic one. Fear clauses with μή take the subjunctive in primary sequence and the optative in historic. Indefinite and temporal clauses take ἄν with the subjunctive in primary sequence and the bare optative in historic.
Indirect statement is the largest single construction in Greek prose and it has three shapes, chosen by the governing verb rather than by the speaker. Verbs of saying such as λέγω and ἀγγέλλω take ὅτι or ὡς with a finite verb, which keeps the tense of the original words and may shift into the optative in historic sequence. Verbs of thinking, believing and also φημί take the accusative and infinitive, with the tense of the infinitive representing the tense of the original: νομίζει αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν, he thinks that he came. Verbs of knowing, perceiving and showing take a participle, agreeing with the accusative object or, where the subject is the same, with the subject in the nominative: οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα, I know that he came; οἶδα ἀδικῶν, I know that I am doing wrong. The specification names extended reported speech and subordinate clauses within indirect speech separately, and this is the A-Level extension: in a long stretch of reported narrative, every subordinate verb inside the report may itself go into the optative, so that a whole paragraph carries the mood of reportedness.
Conditional sentences are best learned as four shapes, distinguished by the mood of the protasis and the presence or absence of ἄν in the apodosis. The open or simple condition states a fact: εἰ with the indicative in the protasis, any mood in the apodosis, no ἄν — εἰ ταῦτα λέγει, ἁμαρτάνει, if he says this, he is wrong. The future-more-vivid, or prospective, uses ἐάν, that is εἰ fused with ἄν, plus the subjunctive, and the future indicative in the apodosis: ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, ὀψόμεθα αὐτόν, if he comes, we shall see him. The future-less-vivid uses the optative in both halves with ἄν in the apodosis: εἰ ἔλθοι, ἴδοιμεν ἂν αὐτόν, if he were to come, we should see him. The unreal or contrary-to-fact uses a past indicative in both halves with ἄν in the apodosis, imperfect for present time and aorist for past: εἰ ταῦτα ᾔδει, οὐκ ἂν ἦλθεν, if he had known this, he would not have come. Learn to identify the type from the protasis and then predict the apodosis; that is faster and safer than translating word by word.
The particle ἄν has no English equivalent and no independent meaning: it is a marker of contingency that attaches to whatever it stands beside. With the optative in a main clause it makes the potential optative, would or might. With a past indicative in a main clause it makes an unreal statement or a past potential. Fused with a conjunction before a subjunctive — ἐάν from εἰ, ὅταν from ὅτε, ἐπειδάν from ἐπειδή, and the free-standing ἄν of ὃς ἄν and ὅπου ἄν — it makes a clause indefinite or prospective. With an infinitive or a participle it signals that the reported clause was, in its direct form, a potential optative or an unreal indicative. It never occurs with the imperative, never with the future indicative in classical Attic, and never in a purpose clause. Because it can stand almost anywhere in its clause and frequently sits early, next to the negative or the first stressed word, the habit to build is to notice it and then hunt for its verb rather than reading past it.
Negation is a system in its own right and Appendix 5d names compound negatives specifically. οὐ negates statements of fact and therefore the indicative and the potential optative; μή negates everything willed, feared, wished, supposed or conditioned, and therefore commands, prohibitions, purpose clauses, conditional protases, the infinitive in most uses, and the participle when it is conditional or generic. The compounds follow their simple forms: οὐδείς, οὐδέποτε, οὔτε against μηδείς, μηδέποτε, μήτε. Two idioms trip candidates. First, when a compound negative follows a simple negative in the same clause the negation is reinforced, not cancelled: οὐδεὶς οὐδὲν εἶπεν means nobody said anything at all. Second, verbs of preventing, forbidding and denying take a redundant μή with the infinitive, which English simply does not translate: ἐκώλυσεν αὐτὸν μὴ ἐλθεῖν means he prevented him from coming, not he prevented him from not coming. Alongside these sit the deliberative subjunctive in questions (τί ποιῶμεν;), prohibitions with μή and the aorist subjunctive (μὴ τοῦτο ποιήσῃς), exhortations with the first person plural subjunctive (ἴωμεν), and wishes with εἴθε and the optative for the attainable or with the past indicative for the impossible.
Worked example

Four conditions, one report, and the grammar answers the examiner wants

Constructed teaching Greek, not a quotation. Translate, and then answer the grammar questions. (a) εἰ ταῦτα λέγεις, ἁμαρτάνεις. (b) ἐὰν οἱ πολέμιοι προσέλθωσιν, οἱ πολῖται φεύξονται. (c) εἰ οἱ πολέμιοι προσέλθοιεν, οἱ πολῖται φεύγοιεν ἄν. (d) εἰ οἱ πολέμιοι προσῆλθον, οἱ πολῖται ἔφυγον ἄν. (e) ὁ ἄγγελος εἶπεν ὅτι οἱ πολῖται, ἐπειδὴ τοὺς πολεμίους ἴδοιεν, φύγοιεν. Questions: name the type of each condition; explain the mood of ἴδοιεν and of φύγοιεν in (e).

  1. 01(a) the open condition

    εἰ with a present indicative in the protasis, a present indicative in the apodosis, no ἄν anywhere. That is the open or simple condition, which asserts nothing about whether the supposition is true: if you are saying this, you are wrong. English keeps the indicative in both halves, which makes this the one condition that translates itself.

  2. 02(b) future-more-vivid

    ἐάν, which is εἰ fused with ἄν, plus the aorist subjunctive προσέλθωσιν; the apodosis has the future indicative φεύξονται. That is the future-more-vivid, or prospective, condition, which treats the supposition as a real prospect: if the enemy approach, the citizens will flee. Note the aspect of the subjunctive — aorist, so the approaching is seen as one event, not as a process.

  3. 03(c) future-less-vivid

    εἰ with the optative προσέλθοιεν in the protasis, and in the apodosis the optative φεύγοιεν accompanied by ἄν. Optative in both halves with ἄν in the apodosis is the future-less-vivid condition, which holds the supposition at arm's length: if the enemy were to approach, the citizens would flee. The English should carry that remoteness, with were to and would.

  4. 04(d) unreal

    εἰ with the aorist indicative προσῆλθον in the protasis, and the aorist indicative ἔφυγον with ἄν in the apodosis. A past indicative in both halves with ἄν in the apodosis is the unreal or contrary-to-fact condition, and the aorist places it in past time: if the enemy had approached, the citizens would have fled — the plain implication being that they did not. Had the tenses been imperfect, the reference would have been to present time: were approaching, would be fleeing.

  5. 05(e) the report and its two optatives

    εἶπεν is a past tense, so the whole report stands in historic sequence, and both ἴδοιεν and φύγοιεν are optatives for that reason and no other. φύγοιεν is the verb of the ὅτι clause itself, an aorist optative representing what would have been an aorist indicative in the messenger's actual words. ἴδοιεν is inside a temporal clause which is itself inside the report, and it too has been drawn into the optative: this is what the specification calls a subordinate clause within indirect speech, and it is a specifically A-Level requirement. In the messenger's own words the clause would have read ἐπειδὴ τοὺς πολεμίους εἶδον, ἔφυγον.

  6. 06Writing the grammar answers

    The examiner wants the category, the trigger and the effect, in one sentence each. For ἴδοιεν: aorist optative of ὁράω, third person plural; optative because the temporal clause stands inside indirect speech governed by the past-tense εἶπεν, that is, by historic sequence. For φύγοιεν: aorist optative of φεύγω, third person plural, the verb of the ὅτι clause, in the optative for the same reason; translated as an ordinary English past tense, because English marks reportedness by tense rather than by mood.

Result: (a) If you are saying this, you are wrong — open condition. (b) If the enemy approach, the citizens will flee — future-more-vivid. (c) If the enemy were to approach, the citizens would flee — future-less-vivid. (d) If the enemy had approached, the citizens would have fled — unreal, past time. (e) The messenger said that the citizens, when they saw the enemy, fled. Both ἴδοιεν and φύγοιεν are aorist optatives caused by historic sequence after εἶπεν; ἴδοιεν additionally illustrates a subordinate clause drawn into the optative inside indirect speech.

Exam focus

  • Component 02 Section A grammar questions often ask why a verb is in the subjunctive or optative; the expected answer names the clause type, the sequence, and the governing verb that produced the mood (AO1).
  • Conditional sentences are a reliable source of marks and of disasters: identify the type from the protasis before translating a single word of the apodosis (AO1).
  • Extended reported speech is an explicit A-Level requirement, so expect a stretch of Xenophon in which several successive subordinate verbs stand in the optative purely because they are inside a report (AO1).

Typical mistakes

  • Translating ἄν as a word: it has no English equivalent, and the translation must instead show its effect in the mood of the English verb.
  • Reading an optative in a subordinate clause as a wish, when in historic sequence it is simply the mood of reportedness and should be translated as an ordinary past tense.
  • Cancelling a double negative: in Greek οὐδεὶς οὐδέν reinforces, and translating it as somebody said something reverses the sense.

Active revision

Take a page of Xenophon or any fourth-century Attic prose. Find every subordinate clause, and for each write down four things: the conjunction, the clause type from the Appendix 5d list, the mood of its verb, and the reason that mood was chosen — clause type, sequence, or the presence of ἄν. Then find every conditional sentence and label it open, future-more-vivid, future-less-vivid or unreal, giving the evidence from the protasis in each case.

Active recall

Recall the key points — then reveal.

Sources: OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d (Cambridge OCR) · GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages (Department for Education)

Contents

Section -- / 06

    • 01The printed page: script, breathings, accents and what you are asked to write○
    • 02Nouns: gender, number, case and the three declensions◐
    • 03The noun phrase: the article, adjectives, adverbs, comparison and pronouns◐
    • 04The verb: aspect, tense, mood and voice in the ω-conjugation●
    • 05The -μι conjugation, irregular principal parts, participles and infinitives●
    • 06Syntax: case usage, negation, subordinate clauses and the uses of ἄν●

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Accidence and syntax

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Competencies
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References & sources

Sources

Cambridge OCR

  • OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification, Appendix 5d
  • OCR A Level in Classical Greek (H444) specification

Department for Education

  • GCE AS and A level subject content for ancient languages

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